Wikipedia

Gine-gine masu tsarki

gine-gine mai tsarki (wanda aka fi sani da gine-gine mai Tsarki ko Gine-gine na addini) aikin gine-gine ne na addini wanda ke da alaƙa da ƙira da gina wuraren ibada ko wuri mai tsarki ko na niyya, kamar majamin Masallatai, stupas, majami'a, da temples. Al'adu da yawa sun ba da albarkatu masu yawa ga gine-ginen su masu tsarki da wuraren ibada. Wuraren addini da masu tsarki suna daga cikin gine-gine da suka fi ban sha'awa da na dindindin da bil'adama suka kirkira. Sabanin haka, gine-gine mai tsarki a matsayin wuri don kusanci na meta na iya zama ba na musamman ba, na ɗan lokaci kuma mai zaman kansa, na sirri da ba na jama'a ba.

Cikin Masallacin Sultan Ahmed a Istanbul, Turkiyya

Tsare-tsare masu tsarki, addini da tsattsauran ra'ayi galibi sun samo asali ne tsawon ƙarni kuma su ne gine-gine mafi girma a duniya, kafin babban ginin zamani. Yayin da nau'ikan salo daban-daban da aka yi amfani da su a cikin gine-gine masu tsarki wani lokaci suna nuna yanayin wasu sifofi, waɗannan salon kuma sun kasance na musamman daga gine-gine na zamani da ake amfani da su a wasu sifofi. Da haɓakar Kiristanci da Musulunci, gine-ginen addini sun ƙara zama wuraren ibada, addu'a da tunani.

Bimah of Princes Road Synagogue a Liverpool, Ingila

Harkokin ilimi na Yammacin Tarihin gine-gine da kansa yana bin tarihin gine-ginen addini daga zamanin d ̄ a har zuwa Lokacin Baroque, aƙalla. Tsarin lissafi mai tsarki, hotuna, da kuma amfani da kayan aiki masu mahimmanci kamar alamomi, alamomi da abubuwan addini suna da alaƙa da gine-gine masu tsarki.

Abubuwan ruhaniya na gine-ginen addini

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An yi amfani da Pyramid of the Moon na Teotihuacán don hadaya ta al'ada

Tsarin tsarki ko na addini wani lokacin ana kiransa sarari mai tsarki.

Architect Norman L. Koonce ya ba da shawarar cewa burin gine-gine mai tsarki shine ya "bayyana iyakar tsakanin kwayoyin halitta da tunani, nama da ruhu. " A tattauna gine-gine masu tsarki, Ministan Furotesta Robert Schuller ya ba da shawara cewa "don kasancewa da lafiya a hankali, mutane suna buƙatar fuskantar yanayin su na halitta - wanda aka tsara don, wanda shine lambun. " A halin yanzu, Richard Kieckhefer ya ba da damar cewa shiga cikin ginin addini kwatanci ne don shiga cikin dangantaka ta ruhaniya.Kieckhefer ya ba da shawarar cewa za'a iya nazarin sararin samaniya mai tsarki ta hanyar dalilai uku da ke shafar tsarin ruhaniya: sararin samaniya yana jaddada procession da dawowar ayyukan sacramental, sararin ɗakin taro yana nuna shelar da amsawa, kuma sababbin nau'ikan sararin samaniya da aka tsara don tarawa da dawowa sun dogara da babban mataki akan rage girman don inganta kusanci da shiga cikin bautar.Masanin ilimin addini Florin George Călian ya tabbatar da cewa "wurin tsarki shine wurin da mai wucewa ya zama mai ciki, kuma inda mai bautar zai iya samun damar Allah" [1]

Gine-gine na dā

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Haikali na Luxor na Masar, wanda aka gina kimanin shekaru 3400 da suka gabata

Gine-gine masu tsarki sun ƙunshi nau'ikan gine-gine na dā da suka haɗa da gine-ginen Neolithic, gine-ginin Masar na dā da gine-gine da Sumerian. tsoro gine-ginen addini, musamman temples, galibi ana kallon su a matsayin wurin zama, temenos na alloli kuma ana amfani da su azaman wurin yin hadayu daban-daban. Tsohon kaburbura da tsarin binnewa misalai ne na tsarin gine-gine wanda ke nuna imani na addini na al'ummominsu daban-daban. Haikali na Karnak a Thebes, Misira an gina shi a cikin shekaru 1300 kuma haikalinsa da yawa sun ƙunshi abin da zai iya zama mafi girman tsarin addini da aka taɓa ginawa.  [ana buƙatar hujja]Gine-ginen addinin Masar na dā ya burge masu binciken tarihi kuma ya kama tunanin jama'a na dubban shekaru.

Gine-gine na gargajiya

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Parthenon a Athens, Girka.

Kusan 600 KZ an maye gurbin ginshiƙan katako na Olympia" Haikali na Hera a Olympia da ginshiƙai na dutse. Tare da yaduwar wannan tsari zuwa wasu gine-ginen tsarki wasu gine-gine na dutse sun tsira ta hanyar shekaru. Tunda gidajen ibada ne kawai gine-ginen da suka tsira a lambobi, yawancin ra'ayinmu na gine-ginin gargajiya ya dogara ne akan tsarin addini.Parthenon, wanda ya yi aiki a matsayin ginin ajiya da kuma wurin girmama allahntaka, ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin misali mafi girma na gine-gine na gargajiya.

Addinai na Indiya

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Gine-gine na Indiya yana da alaƙa da tarihi da addinai na lokacin da kuma yanayin ƙasa da ilimin ƙasa na yankin Indiya. Indiya ta haɗu da hanyoyin kasuwanci na 'yan kasuwa daga nesa kamar Siraf da China da kuma mamayewar' yan kasashen waje, wanda ya haifar da tasirin abubuwa masu yawa na kasashen waje akan salon asali. Bambancin al'adun Indiya yana wakiltar gine-ginensa. Gine-gine na Indiya sun ƙunshi cakuda al'adun gargajiya da na asali daban-daban, tare da nau'ikan gine-gine, siffofi da fasaha daga Yamma, Asiya ta Tsakiya, da Turai.

Addinin Buddha

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Yammacin Torana na Sanchi

Gine-ginen Buddha ya bunkasa a Kudancin Asiya tun daga ƙarni na uku KZ.[ana buƙatar ƙa'ida] Nau'ikan tsari guda biyu suna da alaƙa da Addinin Buddha na farko: viharas da stupas. Da farko, Viharas sun kasance mafaka na wucin gadi da 'yan majami'a masu yawo ke amfani da su a lokacin ruwan sama, amma waɗannan gine-ginen daga baya sun bunkasa don karɓar karuwar addinin Buddha.Misali na yanzu yana a Nalanda (Bihar).

Ayyukan farko na stupa shine girmamawa da kiyaye kayan Buddha. Misali na farko na stupa yana cikin Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). Dangane da canje-canje a cikin ayyukan addini, an haɗa stupas a hankali cikin chaitya-grihas (gidan dakuna nastupa). Wadannan sun kai matsayi mafi girma a ƙarni na farko KZ, wanda aka kwatanta da kogon Ajanta da Ellora (Maharashtra).

pagoda wani juyin halitta ne na stupa na Indiya wanda aka yi alama da hasumiya mai laushi tare da ɗakunan da yawa da aka saba da su a China, Japan, Koriya, Nepal da sauran sassan Asiya. An haɓaka haikalin Buddha daga baya kuma a waje da Kudancin Asiya, inda addinin Buddha ya ragu a hankali daga farkon ƙarni AZ zuwa gaba, kodayake misali na farko shine na Haikalin Mahabodhi a Bodh Gaya a Bihar. Tsarin gine-ginen stupa ya bazu a duk faɗin Asiya, yana ɗaukar siffofi daban-daban kamar yadda aka haɗa cikakkun bayanai ga yankuna daban-daban cikin ƙirar gaba ɗaya. Araniko, masanin gine-ginen Nepali a farkon karni na 13 ga Kublai Khan ne ya yada shi zuwa kasar Sin da yankin Asiya.

Addinin Hindu

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Haikali na Brihadeeswarar, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, wanda aka gina a cikin salon Dravidian

Gine-ginen haikalin Hindu ya dogara ne akan Sthapatya Veda da sauran tsoffin matani na addini kamar Brihat Samhita, Vastu Shastra, da Shilpa Shastras bisa ga ka'idojin ƙira da jagororin da aka yi imanin cewa masanin gine-ginen allahntaka Vishvakarma ne ya kafa su. Ya samo asali ne a cikin fiye da shekaru 2000. Gine-ginen Hindu ya dace da tsananin tsarin addini wanda ya haɗa da abubuwa na ilimin taurari da lissafi mai tsarki.  [ana buƙatar hujja]A cikin imanin Hindu, Haikali yana wakiltar macrocosm na sararin samaniya da kuma microcosm na ciki. Duk da yake ainihin nau'in gine-ginen haikalin Hindu yana bin al'adun gargajiya, bambancin da yawa yana faruwa tare da kayan ado da kayan ado.

Gine-gine na Kirista

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Gine-gine na Byzantine

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Hagia Sophia, Ikilisiyar Hikima Mai Tsarki, a Istanbul, Turkiyya

Gine-gine na Byzantine ya samo asali ne daga gine-ginen Roman. A ƙarshe, wani salon ya fito wanda ya haɗa da tasirin Gabas ta Tsakiya da shirin gicciye na Girka don ƙirar coci. Bugu da kari, tubali ya maye gurbin dutse, ba a kiyaye tsari na gargajiya sosai ba, mosaics sun maye gurbin kayan ado, kuma an gina ɗakunan da suka rikitarwa.

Ɗaya daga cikin manyan ci gaba a tarihin gine-ginen Yamma ya faru ne lokacin da gine-ginin Justinian I suka kirkiro tsarin rikitarwa wanda ke ba da sauyawa mai sauƙi daga tsarin murabba'in coci zuwa dome mai zagaye (ko dome) ta hanyar squinches ko pendentives. Babban misali na gine-ginen addini na Byzantine na farko shine Hagia Sophia a Istanbul .

Gine-gine na zamani na Turai

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Cocin Intercession a kan Nerl

Gine-gine na addini na majami'u na Kirista a Zamanin Tsakiya sun nuna shirin Gicciye na Latin, wanda ke ɗaukar Roman Basilica a matsayin ainihin abin koyi tare da ci gaba na gaba. Ya ƙunshi nau'i, transepts, kuma bagaden yana tsaye a ƙarshen gabas (duba zane-zane na babban coci). Har ila yau, majami'u da Justinian I ya rinjayi ko ya ba da umarni sun yi amfani da salon Byzantine na dome da Gicciye na Girka (kamar alamar ƙari), suna mai da hankali kan bagaden a tsakiyar cocin. Cocin Intercession a kan Nerl misali ne mai kyau na gine-ginen Orthodox na Rasha a Zamanin Tsakiya. Cocin Urnes (Urnes stavkyrkje) a Norway misali ne mai kyau na cocin zamani.

Gine-gine na Gothic

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Cikin Sainte-ChapelleChapelle mai tsarki

Gine-ginen Gothic yana da alaƙa da manyan majami'u da sauran majami'a, waɗanda suka bunƙasa a Turai a lokacin tsakiya da ƙarshen zamani. Ya samo asali ne a karni na 12 a Faransa, an san shi a lokacin da ake kira Opus Francigenum ("aikin Faransanci"). Wannan salon ya samo asali ne a cocin Saint-Denis a Saint-Dinis, kusa da Paris.[2] Sauran sanannun gine-ginen addinin Gothic sun haɗa da Notre-Dame de Paris, Cathedral of Our Lady of Amiens, da Cathedral na Chartres .

Gine-gine na Renaissance

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Cocin Florence

Renaissance ya kawo dawowar tasirin gargajiya da sabon jaddadawa kan haske mai ma'ana. Gine-gine na Renaissance yana wakiltar farfadowa mai hankali na gine-ginen Roman tare da daidaituwa, daidaitattun lissafi, da tsari na lissafi. Shirin Filippo Brunelleschi na dome na Cathedral na Florence a cikin 1418 yana ɗaya daga cikin mahimman gine-ginen addini na farko na gine-ginin Renaissance na Italiya.

Gine-gine na Baroque

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Cikin Cocin St Paul

  Juyin halitta daga Renaissance zuwa Baroque ya fi gogewa a cikin fasahar addini da gine-gine. Yawancin masana tarihi na gine-gine suna la'akari da ƙirar Michelangelo na Basilica na St. Peter a Roma a matsayin mai gabatarwa ga salon Baroque;[ana buƙatar ƙa'ida] wannan za a iya gane shi ta hanyar sararin ciki mai faɗi (sake maye gurbin dogon ƙanƙanta), ƙarin kulawa mai ban sha'awa ga haske da inuwa, kayan ado masu yawa, manyan frescoes, mai da hankali kan fasahar ciki, kuma akai-akai, tsinkaye na tsakiya na waje. Misali mafi mahimmanci na farko na gine-ginen Baroque shine Santa Susanna na Carlo Maderno . [ra'ayi] St Paul's Cathedral a Landan ta Christopher Wren ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin babban misali na tasirin Baroque a Ingila.

Haikali na Mormon

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Haikali na Salt Lake, a cikin Salt Lake City, Utah

Haikali na Ikilisiyar Yesu Almasihu na Kiristoci na Ƙarshe suna ba da kallo na musamman ga ƙira kamar yadda ya canza daga coci mai sauƙi kamar tsarin Haikali na Kirtland da aka gina a cikin shekarun 1830, zuwa salon Gothic na farkon haikalin Utah, zuwa yawancin haikalin zamani da aka gina yau. Haikali na farko, da wasu haikalin zamani, suna da ɗakin taron firistoci tare da saiti biyu na pulpits a kowane ƙarshen dakin, tare da kujeru ko benaye waɗanda za a iya canza su don fuskantar ko ta yaya. Yawancin, amma ba duk temples suna da mutum-mutumi na Mala'ika Moroni a saman wani hasumiya ba. Haikali na Nauvoo da Haikali na Salt Lake an yi musu ado da dutse na alama, wanda ke wakiltar fannoni daban-daban na bangaskiya.

Gine-gine na zamani da na zamani

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Cocin Saint Mary na Assumption a San Francisco, Amurka

Gine-gine na zamani ya ƙunshi nau'o'i da yawa tare da halaye iri ɗaya wanda ke haifar da sauƙaƙe nau'i da kuma kawar da kayan ado. Mafi tasirin gine-ginen zamani a farkon zuwa tsakiyar karni na 20 sun hada da Dominikus Böhm, Rudolf Schwarz, da Auguste Perret . Duk da yake tsarin duniya a fili yana da babban tasiri ga ci gaban gine-ginen zamani, kyawawan misalai na gine-gine na zamani ana iya samun su a gine-ginen addini na karni na 20. Misali, Haikali na Haɗin kai a Chicago ƙungiyar Unitarian Universalist ce ta Frank Lloyd Wright ta tsara. Cibiyar Sojojin Sojan Sama ta Amurka Cadet Chapel, wacce aka fara a 1954 kuma ta kammala a 1962, Walter Netsch ne ya tsara shi kuma kyakkyawan misali ne na gine-ginen addini na zamani. An kwatanta shi a matsayin "falanx na mayaka" sun juya wutsiyoyinsu suna nuna sama. Pietro Belluschi ya tsara Cathedral na St. Mary of the Assumption (San Francisco), babban cocin Katolika na farko a Amurka ya yi niyyar yin daidai da Vatican II .

Za a iya siffanta tsarin gine-ginen bayan zamani ta hanyar kyawawan abubuwan ban sha'awa ba tare da neman afuwa ba inda salo suka yi karo, tsari ya wanzu don kansa, da sabbin hanyoyin duba salo da sararin samaniya. Haikali a Independence, Missouri an haife shi ne ta hanyar injiniyan Jafananci Gyo Obata bayan tunanin nautilus chambered. zamani. Tsarin yana haifar da al'adun Hispanic na yankin ta hanyar amfani da launi na adobe yayin da aka haɗa siffa ta zamani da wasu abubuwa na gargajiya. Basilica na Uwargidanmu na Licheń a daya bangaren kuma ginin gargajiya ne. Barbara Bielecka ne ya tsara shi kuma an gina shi tsakanin 1994 zuwa 2004, sigar sa ta haɗa da nassoshi da yawa na tsarin Poland. yayin da ƙaton ƙaton ƙafar ƙafa 420 da za a kafa kusa da Basilica ya ɗauki fiye da kamanni na bazata ga Baroque spire cewa. yana ƙawata gidan sufi na Jasna Gora na Czestochowa, gidan Black Madonna .

Al'ummomin Shaker

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Al'ummomin Shaker an yi su ne da tsarin gine-gine  a kan ƙugiya na kamfas ya tashi .

Farkon gine-ginen Musulunci

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Ciki na Mezquita, babban masallacin coci-cathedral tare da ginshiƙan da aka tsara cikin tsarin grid, a Cordoba, Spain

Gine-gine na Byzantine ya yi tasiri sosai a farkon gine-ginen Islama tare da halayensa na tudun doki, rumbun gandun daji da kuma gidaje. Masallatai da dama sun samo asali a yankuna daban-daban na duniyar Musulunci . Fitattun nau'ikan masallatai sun haɗa da masallatan Abbasiyawa na farko, masallatai nau'in T, da masallatan tsakiya na yankin Anatoliya . Salo na farko a cikin gine-ginen Islama sun samar da 'Arab-plan' ko masallatai na munafunci a lokacin daular Umayyad . Wadannan masallatai suna bin tsari mai murabba'i ko rectangular tare da kewayen farfajiya da dakin addu'a. Galibin masallatan munafunci na farko suna da rufin falon sallah lebur, wanda ke buƙatar ginshiƙai da goyan baya da yawa. [3] Mezquita a Cordoba, Spain an gina shi a matsayin masallacin munana da ginshiƙai sama da 850 ke tallafawa. [4] Masallatai na Larabawa sun ci gaba a karkashin daular Abbasiyawa .

Ottoman gine-gine

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Daular Usmaniyya sun gabatar da masallatai 'tsakiyar kubba' a karni na 15 wadanda ke da babban kubba da ke kan dakin salla. Baya ga samun babban kubba guda daya a cibiyar, sau da yawa akan sami kananan guraben da ke zama a tsakar gida a kan dakin sallah ko kuma a cikin sauran masallacin, a wuraren da ba a yin salla. Dome na Masallacin Dutsen da ke Urushalima watakila shine mafi kyawun misalin masallacin kurba na tsakiya.

 
Babban Masallacin Kairouan da aka gina a cikin 670 yana nuna tasirin Byzantine

Sacral architecture na Iran

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'Masallatan Iwan' sun fi shahara ga ɗakunan da ke cikin gida da iwan, waɗanda ke buɗe sararin samaniya daga gefe ɗaya. A cikin masallatan iwan, mutum ɗaya ko fiye da haka yana fuskantar tsakar tsakar gida wanda ke zama zauren sallah. Salon yana wakiltar aro daga gine-ginen Iran kafin zuwan Musulunci kuma kusan ana amfani da shi don masallatai na Iran kawai . Yawancin masallatai na iwan sun zama gidajen wuta na Zoroastrian inda aka yi amfani da tsakar gida wajen ajiye wuta mai tsarki. [5] A yau, masallatan iwan ba a gina su. Masallacin Shah a Isfahan, Iran babban misali ne na masallacin iwan.

Siffofin halaye da salo

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Alamar gama gari a cikin masallatai ita ce minaret, doguwar hasumiya mai siririya wacce galibi tana ɗaya daga cikin kusurwoyin ginin masallacin. saman minaret a ko da yaushe shi ne mafi kololuwa a cikin masallatai da suke da daya, kuma sau da yawa mafi kololuwa a wurin kusa. Masallatai na farko ba su da minare, kuma ko da a zamanin nan mafi yawan ƙungiyoyin Musulunci masu ra'ayin mazan jiya, kamar Wahabiyawa, suna guje wa gina minaro, suna ganin su a matsayin masu tsaurin ra'ayi kuma ba dole ba ne. An fara gina minaret na farko a shekara ta 665 a garin Basra a zamanin mulkin halifa Umayyawa Muawiyah na I. Muawiyah ya kwadaitar da gina minare, domin ya kamata su kawo masallatai daidai da majami'un Kirista da hasumiyansu na kararrawa . Saboda haka, masu gine-ginen masallaci sun ari siffar hasumiya mai kararrawa don ma'adinan su, waɗanda aka yi amfani da su don ainihin manufa ɗaya - kiran masu aminci zuwa ga addu'a. [6]

 
Dome na Dutse a Urushalima sanannen kubba ne na Musulunci

Domes sun kasance alamar gine-ginen Musulunci tun karni na 7. Yayin da lokaci ya ci gaba, girman kubban masallaci ya karu, daga mamaye wani dan karamin rufin da ke kusa da mihrab zuwa kewaye da dukkan rufin da ke sama da dakin sallah. Duk da cewa gidaje suna ɗaukar siffa ta duniya, Mughals a Indiya sun mamaye gida mai siffar albasa a Kudancin Asiya da Farisa .

Zauren sallah, wanda aka fi sani da musalla, ba shi da kayan daki; kujeru da fulawa ba sa zuwa dakin sallah. [7] Dakunan addu'o'in ba su ƙunshi hotunan mutane, dabbobi, da ruhi ba ko da yake ana iya ƙawata su da rubutun larabci da ayoyin Kur'ani a bango.

Galibi daura da kofar shiga dakin sallah akwai katangar al-qibla, wadda ita ce wurin da ake ganin ta a cikin dakin sallar. Katangar al-qibla ana saita shi daidai gwargwado zuwa layin da zai kai ga Makka . Masu ibada suna yin sallah sahu-sahu daidai da katangar alqibla don haka sai su fuskanci Makka. A cikin katangar alqibla, yawanci a tsakiyarta, akwai mihrab, wani wuri ko damuwa dake nuni da bangon alqibla. Galibi mihrab din ba a shagaltar da shi da kayan daki. Wani lokaci, musamman a lokacin sallar juma'a, an kafa minbarya ko mimbari a gefen mihrabin don khatib ko wani mai magana don gabatar da huduba ( khutbah ). Mihrab ya kasance wurin da liman yake jagorantar salloli biyar akai-akai. [8]

Masallatai galibi suna da maɓuɓɓugan alwala ko sauran wuraren wanka a ƙofarsu ko tsakar gida. Sai dai kuma masu ibada a kananan masallatai sukan yi amfani da dakunan wanka don yin alwala. A cikin masallatai na gargajiya, ana yin wannan aikin sau da yawa zuwa wani gini mai zaman kansa a tsakiyar tsakar gida. [1] Masallatai na zamani na iya samun abubuwan more rayuwa iri-iri ga jama'arsu da sauran al'umma, kamar asibitocin lafiya, dakunan karatu da wuraren motsa jiki .

Gidajen Bahaushe

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Gidan ibada na Baha'i ko Mas͟hriqu'l-Ad͟hkár ( Larabci : مشرق اﻻذكار "Wurin Ambaton Allah") suna misalta ka'idodin Baha'i Imani na hadin kai a cikin bambancin, hadin kan Allah, hadin kai. na annabawansa da addinansa, da hadin kan bil'adama. [9] Wadannan ka'idoji na ruhaniya suna haifar da sababbin nau'ikan furci na gine-gine waɗanda ke zama wuraren da mutane na kowane imani, al'adu, da al'adu suke taru tare, yin tunani, tunani, da addu'a, kuma a kusa da su za a gina zamantakewa, jin kai, ilimi, da kimiyya. cibiyoyi. [10] Tsarin kowace ɗakin Bahaushe yana nuna haɗin kan abubuwan muhallinsu, wanda ke fitowa daga tsarin tuntuɓar jama'ar ƙasar, [11] kowanne yana da bangarori tara da ƙofar shiga tara, lamba ta tara alama ce ta haɗin kai. Ya zuwa yanzu an gina Gidajen bauta ta Baha'i na Nahiya takwas da biyu. [12]

Duba kuma

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  • Chapel
  • Gantija
  • Mandir
  • Hierotopy
  • Sanctum sanctorum
  • Wuri mai tsarki

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ Călian, Florin George (2021-08-01). "Editorial RES 2/2021". Review of Ecumenical Studies Sibiu (in Turanci). 13 (2): 139–144. doi:10.2478/ress-2021-0017. S2CID 238206022 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  2. ↑ Andrzej Piotrowski (2011), Architecture of Thought, U of Minnesota Press, p. 23
  3. ↑ name="Masdjid1">Clifford Edmund Bosworth. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  4. ↑ name="mit-handout">"Religious Architecture and Islamic Cultures". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2006-04-09.
  5. ↑ Clifford Edmund Bosworth. Missing or empty |title= (help)Hillenbrand, R. "Masdjid. I. In the central Islamic lands". In P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
  6. ↑ Clifford Edmund Bosworth. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  7. ↑ "Mosque FAQ". The University of Tulsa. Archived from the original on December 30, 2004. Retrieved 2006-04-09.
  8. ↑ "Terms 1: Mosque". University of Tokyo Institute of Oriental Culture. Retrieved 2006-04-09.
  9. ↑ "Houses of Worship | Bahá'í World News Service (BWNS)". Bahá’í World News Service (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-08-17.
  10. ↑ "Houses of Worship | Bahá'í World News Service (BWNS)". Bahá’í World News Service (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-08-17.
  11. ↑ "Sacred Baha'i Architecture". bahai-library.com (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-08-17.
  12. ↑ "Houses of Worship | Bahá'í World News Service (BWNS)". Bahá’í World News Service (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-08-17.
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