Wikipedia

Tarihin Daular Safawiyya

Daular Safawiyya shah Isma'il I ne ya kafa kasar[1] inda Ismail I ya samu nasarar cin Tabriz a ciki kuma aka nada masa sarautar Shahenshah «Sarkin Sarakuna» a ranar 22 ga Disamba 1501.[2][3] Shah Ismail ya samu damar sake hade kasashen Iran tare da kafa daular Shi'a mai karfi.[4] Ana daukar zamanin Safawida farkon tarihin Iran na zamani.

Zane na zamanin Safawid, yana nuna haɗe-haɗe na wani gidan sarauta, na mai zane Mir Sayyid Ali.

Daular Safawiyya sun yi mulki daga 1501 zuwa 1736 kuma, a tsayinsu, sun mallaki duk abin da ke yanzu Iran, Azerbaijan, Baharen, Armeniya, Gabashin Jojiya. Caucasus ciki har da Rasha Iraƙi, Kuwaiti, da Afghanistan, da kuma wasu sassan Turkiyya, Siriya, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, da Uzbekistan. Daular ta fara raguwa bayan rasuwar Shah Abbas mai girma, amma ta sake samun bunkasuwa a zamanin Shah Abbas II. A shekara ta 1722, babban birnin safawid, Isfahan, ya fada hannun Hotakis mahara, kuma ya barke da yaki don farfado da daular Safawiyya, karkashin jagorancin Nader Shah, ya sami nasarar korar maharan Afganistan, kuma Shah Tahmasp II ya koma kan karagar.[5]

Sannan hakikanin ikon kasar ya koma hannun Nader Shah, kuma da nadin sarautar Shah Abbas III, Nader ya zama regent har sai da Nader ya ayyana kansa Shahenshah a shekarar 8 ga Maris 1736. Don haka daular Safawiyya ta ƙare bayan mulkin da ya shafe fiye da ƙarni biyu. Bayan wargajewar daular Afsharid, wadda Nader Shah ya kafa, an sake bayyana yunkurin sake farfado da daular Safawiyya, kamar yadda Suleiman II aka ayyana Safawid Shah a Khorasan a ranar 17 ga Disamba 1749. Yunkuri na biyu shi ne nadin sarautar Ismail III a Isfahan. a ranar 29 ga Yuni 1750, amma duk ƙoƙarin da aka yi bai yi nasara ba wajen maido da mulkin Safawid.

Duk da rugujewar daular, gadon da suka bari a baya shi ne sake farfado da Iran a matsayin matattarar tattalin arziki tsakanin gabashi da yamma, kuma kafa tsarin mulki mai aiki da tsarin mulki ya dogara ne akan (check and balances). baya ga sha'awar Safawid a cikin gine-gine, zane-zane.[6]

Kafa daular Safawaiyya

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Iran kafin Safa'awa

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Ismail ya ayyana kansa «Shāh» ta hanyar shiga Tabriz; sojojinsa a gaban Arg na Tabriz, mai zane Chingiz Mehbaliyev, a cikin tarin sirri.

Bayan rugujewar daular Timurid, Iran ta rabu a siyasance. Rushewar ikon siyasar Tamerlane ya haifar da sararin da al'ummomin addinai da dama, musamman na Shi'i, za su iya fitowa gaba da samun shahara. Daga cikin wadannan kungiyoyi daban-daban, Safawid Qizilbash ya kasance mafi tsayin daka a siyasance, kuma saboda nasarar da suka samu Shah Isma'il ya samu daukakar siyasa a shekara ta 1501.[7] Akwai jihohi da yawa kafin daular da Isma'il ya kafa.[8] Isma'il ya iya hada dukkan wadannan kasashe karkashin daular Iran ta Shi'a da ya yi. Kafin hadewar daular, kasar ta kasance karkashin sarakuna da dama, wadanda suka hada da:

  • Huṣayn Bayqarā, mai mulkin Timurid na Herāt.
  • Alwand Mīrzā, Aq Qoyunlu Khan na Tabriz.
  • Murad Beg, Aq Qoyunlu mai mulkin Iraƙi al-Ajam.
  • Farrokh Yasar, Sarkin Širvan.
  • Badi Alzamān Mīrzā, gwamnan Balkh.
  • Huṣayn Kīā Chalavī, gwamnan Semnān.
  • Murād Beg Bayandar, gwamnan Yazd.
  • Sultan Mahmud ibn Nizam al-Din Yahya ya fito daga gidan Mahrabani, sarkin Sistān.
  • Sarakunan Mazandaran da Gilan da dama kamar: Bisotun II, Ashraf ibn Taj al-Dawla, Mirza Ali, da Kiya Husayn II.

Tashin Shāh Ismāʻil I

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Ɗaya daga cikin ayyukan farko da Shāh Ismā’il I na daular Safawiyya ya yi shi ne shelanta ƙungiyar Shi’anci Islama sha biyu a matsayin addinin sabuwar daular Farisa da ya kafa. Wannan daular ta zama daya daga cikin manya-manyan iko na zamaninta.

Shah Ismā'īl I ne ya kafa daular Safawiyya kimanin shekara ta 1501.[9] An san Isma'il jajirtacce kuma matashi mai kwarjini, mai kishin imani da Shi'anci. A cikin 1500 Ismāʻil I ya ci maƙwabciyar Shirvan don ɗaukar fansar mutuwar mahaifinsa Sheik Haydar wanda Shirvanshah mai mulki Farrukh Yassar ya kashe a 1488. Bayan haka, Ismail ya ci gaba da yaƙin cin nasara, inda ya kame Tabriz a watan Yuli 1501, inda aka naɗa shi a matsayin Shāh «sarkin»[10][11][12] kuma aka yi shelar zama Shāhenshah «sarkin sarakuna».[13][14][15] ya hako tsabar kudi da sunansa, yana shelanta Shi’anci Sha biyu a matsayin addinin daular.[16] Ko da yake Ismā`il na farko ya sami nasara akan Azarbaijan kaɗai, amma a ƙarshe Safawwa sun yi nasara a gwagwarmayar neman iko a kan Iran baki ɗaya. a cikin shekaru 10 shah Ismail ya kafa cikakken iko a kan dukkanin Iran. Sarakunan daular Usmaniyya sun sanya masa suna «Sarkin yankunan Iran kuma magajin Jamshid da Kaykhusraw».[17]

Da yake farawa da mallakar Azerbaijan, Shirvan, kudancin Dagestan (tare da muhimmin birnin Derbent), da Armeniya a cikin 1501,[18] Erzincan da Erzurum sun fada cikin mulkinsa a 1502,[19] Hamadan a 1503, Shiraz da Kerman a shekara ta 1504, Diyarbakir, Najaf, da Karbala a shekara ta 1507, Van a shekara ta 1508, Bagadaza a shekara ta 1509, da Herat, da sauran yankunan Khorasan, a shekara ta 1510. A cikin 1503 an mai da masarautun Kartli da Kakheti su ma.[20] Gagarumin nasara da Ismā'il ya yi akan Uzbek waɗanda suka mamaye mafi yawan Khorasan, sun tabbatar da iyakar Iran ta gabas, kuma Uzbek ba su taɓa fadadawa fiye da Kush Hindu ba. Ko da yake Uzbek sun ci gaba da kai hare-hare na lokaci-lokaci zuwa cikin Khorasan, daular Safawiyya ta yi nasarar hana su a duk tsawon mulkinta.

 
Girman daular Shāh Ismāʻil a yammacin Asiya.

Bayan faduwar daular Timurid, Khan Uzbekan, Shibek Khan, wanda ya kira kansa zuriyar Genghis Khan, ya sami damar kwace mafi yawan Turkestan da dukkan Khorasan tare da kafa daular Shibanid. Ya shigo Iran ne daga arewa maso gabas saboda tsattsauran ra'ayin Sunnah da kuma kwarin guiwar sarki Bayezid II ya ruguza sabuwar gwamnatin Safawiyya da aka kafa. Shah Ismail ya yi tattaki zuwa Khorasan da nufin yakar Shibak Khan kuma ya kwace garuruwan Damghan, Gorgan da Mashhad a kan hanyar. Shibak Khan ya fake a Merv kagara, wanda Shāh Ismail ya kasa mamayewa.

Shi ya sa ya yi kokarin fitar da Shibek Khan daga kagara da dabara. Shirin Shah Ismail ya yi nasara, yayin da sojojin biyu suka fafata a kusa da birnin Merv a yakin da ya hada da sojojin Qazilbash 17,000 da sojojin Uzbek 27,000. Yakin ya kare ne da nasarar da sojojin Safawid suka samu a wani yaki mai wahala, don haka Shah Ismail ya samu nasara mamaye garuruwan Herat, Merv, da Khorasan.

 
 
Hotunan yaƙe-yaƙe na Farisa na yaƙin da Shah Isma'il ya yi, a hagu yana nuna yaƙin da ya yi da Shaybanida kuma a hannun dama yana nuna yaƙin da Daular Usmaniyya.

Mafi matsala ga Safawiyawa shine daular Usmaniyya da ke makwabtaka da ita. Daular Usmaniyya ta Sunni ta dauki jan hankalin kabilun Turkmen na yankin Anatoliya zuwa ga tafarkin Safawiyya a matsayin babbar barazana. Domin tunkarar mulkin Safawiyya da ke tashe, a shekara ta 1502, sarki Bayezid II ya kori musulmi 'yan Shi'a da karfi da karfi daga yankin Anatoliya zuwa wasu sassan daular Usmaniyya. A shekara ta 1511, tawayen Şahkulu wani yunkuri ne mai yaduwa na mabiya Shi'a wanda aka yi wa daular Usmaniyya daga cikin daular.[21] A shekara ta 1512, Selim I bin Bayezid II ya hau kan karagar Usmani. A farkon mulkinsa, Selim ya ƙirƙira jerin sunayen duk 'yan Shi'a masu shekaru 7 zuwa 70 a yawancin garuruwan Anadolu na tsakiya da suka haɗa da Tokat, Sivas da Amasya. Yayin da Selim ya zagaya cikin wadannan garuruwan, sojojinsa suka tattara suka kashe duk 'yan Shi'ar da suka samu yawancinsu an fille kawunansu. Kisan gillar shi ne mafi girma a Tarihin Usmani, har zuwa karshen karni na 19.[22]

A shekara ta 1514 Selim na kai wa masarautar Ismail hari domin hana yaduwar Shi'anci zuwa daular Usmaniyya. Selim da Ismā'il sun yi musayar jerin wasiƙun yaƙi kafin harin. A tattakin da ya yi don fuskantar Isma’il, Selim ya yi wa Alevis 50,000 kisan kiyashi, yana ganin su makiyan Daular Usmaniyya ne.[23] Yawancin majiyoyi sun yarda cewa sojojin Usmani sun kai girman na Safawid akalla ninki biyu‌‌;[24] haka kuma, daular Usmaniyya na da damar yin amfani da manyan bindigogi, wadanda sojojin Safawad suka rasa. Ko da yake Isma'il ya sha kaye a yakin Chaldiran, daular Safawiya ta tsira. Yakin da ke tsakanin manyan kasashen biyu ya ci gaba a karkashin dan Isma'il, Sarkin sarakuna Tahmasp na daya, da sarki Suleiman, har sai da Shah Abbās I ya kwato dukkan kasashen.

Fadadawa da ƙarfi

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Shāh Tahmāsp I (r. 1524–1576)

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Hoton Shāh Tahmāsp I wanda shi ne Shāh na biyu na Daular Safawiyya kuma ya kasance mafi dadewa a mulki a cikin sauran masu mulki.

Shāh Tahmāsp matashin titular gwamnan Khorasan ya gaji mahaifinsa Isma'il a shekara ta 1524 yana ɗan shekara goma da wata uku.[25] Tahmāsp ya kasance ƙarƙashin mulkin Qizilbash amir Ali Beg Rūmlū (mai suna: Div Soltān Rumlu) wanda ya ga kansa a matsayin mai mulkin jihar. Kopek Sultān Ustajlu wanda ya kasance wakīli na ƙarshe na Ismāil kuma Rūmlū ya kafa kansu a matsayin sarakunan matashin shah.[26] Qizilbash, wadanda har yanzu suke shan wahala a karkashin gadon yakin kasar Chaldiran, sun shiga cikin rikici na cikin gida. Shekaru biyun farko na mulkin Tahmāsp sun ƙare tare da ƙoƙarin Div Sultan na kawar da Ustajlu daga mulki.[27] Wannan makircin kotu yana haifar da rikicin kabilanci kai tsaye. Tun daga shekara ta 1526 aka fara yaƙe-yaƙe na lokaci-lokaci, daga arewa maso yammacin Iran amma ba da jimawa ba ya haɗa da dukan Khorasan.[28] Idan babu mai kwarjini, mai tada zaune tsaye kamar Shah Ismail, shugabannin kabilar sun dawo da mulkinsu na gargajiya tare da yin barazanar komawa zamanin sarakunan yaki na cikin gida. Kimanin shekaru 10 ne kungiyoyin Qizilbash masu adawa da juna suka gwabza da juna. Da farko, ƙabilar Ustajlu ta Kopek Sultān sun sha wahala mafi tsanani, kuma an kashe shi da kansa a yaƙi.

Ta haka Div Soltān ya zama mai nasara a gwagwarmayar fada ta farko, amma ya fada hannun Chuha Sultān na Takkalu, wanda ya juya Tahmāsp a gaban jagoransa na farko. A cikin 1527 Tahmāsp ya nuna sha'awarsa ta hanyar harbin kibiya a Div Soltān a gaban kotun da aka taru. Takkalu sun maye gurbin Rumlu a matsayin mafi rinjaye. Su kuma Shamlu za su maye gurbinsu, amir su Husain Khan, ya zama babban mashawarcin Shāh, wannan sabon shugaban zai kasance har zuwa 1534 lokacin da aka cire shi kuma aka kashe shi.[29] A faduwar Husain Khan, Tahmāsp ya tabbatar da mulkinsa. Maimakon ya dogara ga wani rukuni, ya naɗa wakīlin farisa; Daga shekara ta 1553 har tsawon shekaru arba'in, shah ya sami damar kaucewa shiga cikin ha'incin kabilanci. Amma shekaru goma na yakin basasa ya fallasa daular ga hadarin kasashen waje kuma Tahmāsp ya mayar da hankalinsa ga hare-haren da Uzbek ke ci gaba da yi.[30]

 
 
A hannun dama, ya zana Suleiman I daya daga cikin sarakunan daular Usmaniyya, a bangaren hagu kuma ya nuna Tahmāsp I Shahenshah na Daular Safawiyya.

A zamanin mulkin Tahmāsp 'yan Uzbek sun kai hari kan lardunan gabas na masarautar sau biyar, sannan daular Usmaniyya karkashin Suleiman I ta mamaye wasu kasashe sau hudu.[31] Gudanar da mulkin da ba a san shi ba a kan sojojin Uzbek ne ke da alhakin gazawar Uzbek don yin kutsawa cikin yankin Khorasan.[32] duk da rashin jituwa na cikin gida, manyan Safavid sun amsa barazanar Herat a cikin 1528 ta hanyar hawa gabas tare da Tahmāsp (sa'an nan 17) tare da fatattakar manyan sojojin Uzbek a Jām.[33] Wannan nasara ta samo asali ne sakamakon amfani da makaman da sojojin safawa suka yi amfani da su da kuma horar da su tun bayan Yakin Chaldiran.[34]

Duk da nasarar da aka samu da bindigogi a Jām, Tahmāsp ya zaɓi yankin cede don daular Usmaniyya maimakon yaƙi kai tsaye, galibi yana amfani da dabarun ƙasa a cikin tsari.[35] Manufar Usmanid a yakin 1534 da 1548-1549, a lokacin yakin Usmaniya-Safawiya 1532-1555, shine sanya 'yan'uwan Tahmāsp (Sām Mirza da Alqās Mirza, bi da bi) a matsayin shah don mayar da Iran a karkashin kasa. Ko da yake a waccan kamfen (da kuma a cikin 1554) Daular Usmaniyya ta kama Tabriz, amma ba su da hanyar sadarwar da ta isa ta mamaye ta na dogon lokaci.[36] Duk da haka, saboda rashin tsaro a Iraki da yankin arewa maso yamma, Tahmāsp ya tura kotunsa daga Tabriz zuwa Qazwin.

 
Hotunan birnin Tabriz, hedkwatar Daular Safawiyya ta farko tun daga kafuwarta har zuwa zamanin Shāh Tahmāsp I.
 
Hotunan birnin Qazwin, babban birnin Daular Safawiyya na biyu ya kasance babban birninsa har zuwa lokacin mulkin Shāh Abbas I.

A lokacin yakin, Daular Usmaniyya ta yi arangama da dabarun dabara na Shāh Tahmāsp I, wanda ya iya tunkude hare-haren da Usmanid ya yi, ya kuma yi hasara mai yawa ga sojojin daular Usmaniyya ba tare da wata arangama ta kai tsaye ba, kamar yadda Shah Tahmasp ya yi amfani da ka'idar da ba ta dace ba don tunkarar daular Usmaniyya. A shekara ta 1534, Suleiman ya jagoranci wani gagarumin yakin soji tare da sojojin da aka kiyasta sun kai 200,000 da kuma bindigogi 300 a kan Tahmāsp, wanda ke da mayakan 7,000 kawai, saboda haka, Shāh Tahmāsp ya kauce wa karo kai tsaye da sojojin Usmanid dabarar soji mai wayo don tunkarar sojojin Usmanid, wanda aka tilastawa tsallakawa tsaunukan Zagros, wannan dabara ta kai ga mutuwar sojojin daular Usmaniyya 30,000, wanda ya tilasta wa Sarki Suleiman I soke yakin neman zabensa.

A lokacin yakin karshe da Usmanid ya yi da Safawid a shekarar 1553, Tahmæsp ya dauki matakin, inda ya garzaya zuwa yankin Usmanid, ya hambarar da Iskander Pasha tare da kwace iko da birnin Erzurum na Turkiyya, Tahmāsp ya kuma kama Sinan Bey, daya daga cikin manyan mataimaka zuwa ga Sarkin Usmanid. Don haka ne aka tilastawa daular Usmaniyya sanya hannu kan wata yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya da Daular Safawiyya, wadda ake kira yarjejeniyar Amasya, wadda ta dauki tsawon shekaru 30 ana yi. An fayyace iyakokin daulolin biyu kuma an dakatar da rikicin makamai a tsakanin su.[37] Tabriz, Gabashin Jojiya, Armeniya ta Gabas, Kurdistan ta Gabas, Dagestan, Azerbaijan[38] da sauran iyakar arewa maso yamma sun shiga daular Safawiyya.

'Yan gudun hijira na sarauta

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Shāh Tahmāsp I da Humayun a Isfahan.

Kusan a lokasi guda da bullowar daular Safawiyya, daular Gurkaniyya, wacce yarima Timurid Babur ya kafa, tana tasowa a Kudancin Asiya. Gurkaniyawa galibi sun rungumi addinin sunna masu hakuri yayin da yawancin mutanensu mabiya addinin Hindu ne. Bayan rasuwar Babur, an kori dansa Humayun daga yankunansa tare da yi masa barazana daga kaninsa kuma abokin hamayyarsa, wadanda suka gaji yankin arewacin Babur.[39] Bayan ya gudu daga birni zuwa birni, Humayun ya nemi mafaka a kotun Tahmāsp da ke Qazwin a shekara ta 1543. Tahmāsp ya karɓi Humayun a matsayin sarki na gaskiya na daular Gurkaniyya, duk da cewa Humayun ya shafe fiye da shekaru goma sha biyar yana gudun hijira.[40][41] A nan ne Humayun ya musulunta na Shi'a.[42] Tahmāsp ya ba shi taimakon soja don dawo da yankunansa a madadin ya ba Kandahar daular Safawiyya. A cikin 1545 hadaddiyar rundunar Safawiyya-Gurkaniyya ta yi nasarar kwace Kandahar tare da mamaye Kabul.[43] Don haka Humayun ya koma kan karagar Ghurkaniyya.

Art da al'adu wadata

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  •  
    An danganta shi ga Aqa Mirak, Faridun ya kama kamar dodon yana gwada 'ya'yansa maza, Wannan takarda, wacce daya ce daga cikin hotuna 258 na littafin Shahnameh Tahmasbi mai kayatarwa.
  •  
    Hoton wani shafi daga Shahnameh na Tahmasbi, wanda ke bayyana makarkashiyar kashe Khosrow Parvez, sarkin Sassanid.
  •  
    Shafi daga Shahnameh na Tahmasabi, wanda ke ba da labarin labarin Fereydoun na tsallaka Tigris.
  •  
    Kura Muhammad, Labarin Haftvad Da tsutsa.

A cikin al'amuran al'adu, Tahmāsp ya jagoranci farfado da fasaha mai kyau, wanda ya bunƙasa a ƙarƙashin ikonsa. Sau da yawa ana sha'awar al'adun Safavid saboda manyan tsare-tsare da gine-ginen birni, nasarorin da aka samu a zamanin mulkin Shahs na baya, amma fasahar kere-kere na Farisa, ɗaure littattafai da ƙira, a haƙiƙa, ba a taɓa samun kulawa sosai kamar yadda suka yi a zamaninsa ba lokaci.[44] Sarautar Tahmāsp da mahaifinsa, Ismail I, ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin mafi fa'ida a cikin tarihin harshen Turkiyya da adabi na Azeri. Shahararren mawaƙin nan, Fuzuli, wanda ya yi rubuce-rubuce cikin harsunan Azeri Turkanci, Farisa, da Larabci, ya bunƙasa a wannan zamani.[45] Dan uwansa Sam Mirza ya ambata a cikin littafinsa (Tazkera-ye Tohfe-ye Sāmi) cewa akwai mawaka 700 a zamanin sarakunan Safawiyya biyu na farko.[46]

Tahmāsp fitaccen gudummuwa da yabo ga fasahar Safawiyya shine taimakonsa na rubutun Farisa da ya faru a farkon rabin mulkinsa. Ɗaya daga cikin manyan rubuce-rubucen zane-zane na Shahnameh, wanda mahaifinsa ya ba da izini a kusa da 1522 yana ɗauke da sunan Tahmasp.[47] Ya ƙarfafa masu zane-zane irin su Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād,[48] yana ba da wani taron bita na zanen sarauta ga haziƙai, ƴan tafiya, da masu koyo tare da wasu abubuwa masu ban mamaki kamar zinare na ƙasa da lapis lazuli. Masu fasahar Tahmasp sun kwatanta Khamsa na Nizami,[49] kuma ya yi aiki a kan zanen baranda na Chehel Sotoun.[50] Littafin (Tarikh-e Alam-ara-ye Abbasi) ya kira mulkin Tahmāsp zenith na Safawiyya calligraphic da kuma zane-zane.[51]

Zaman tashin hankali

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Koli na iko da wadata

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Zamanin raguwa

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Karshen daular Safawiyya

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Ƙoƙari a farfaɗowa

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Duba kuma

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Manazarta

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  1. ↑ "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica
  2. ↑ George Lenczowski, "Iran under the Pahlavis", Hoover Institution Press, 1978, p. 79: "Ismail Safavi, descendant of the pious Shaykh Ishaq Safi al-Din (d. 1334), seized Tabriz assuming the title of Shahanshah-e-Iran".
  3. ↑ Richard Tapper. "Shahsevan in Safavid Persia", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1974, p. 324.
  4. ↑ https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EIEO/COM-0964.xml
  5. ↑ Roemer 2008, p. 301.
  6. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20220525211301/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids
  7. ↑ Virani, Shafique N. The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, A Search for Salvation (New York: Oxford University Press), 2007, p. 113.
  8. ↑ The writer Ṛūmlu documented the most important of them in his history.
  9. ↑ "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica
  10. ↑ Archived.
  11. ↑ Lawrence Davidson, Arthur Goldschmid, A Concise History of the Middle East, Westview Press, 2006, p. 153.
  12. ↑ Richard Tapper. "Shahsevan in Safavid Persia", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1974, p. 324.
  13. ↑ George Lenczowski, "Iran under the Pahlavis", Hoover Institution Press, 1978, p. 79: "Ismail Safavi, descendant of the pious Shaykh Ishaq Safi al-Din (d. 1334), seized Tabriz assuming the title of Shahanshah-e-Iran".
  14. ↑ Stefan Sperl, C. Shackle, Nicholas Awde, "Qasida poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa", Brill Academic Pub; Set Only edition (February 1996), p. 193: "Like Shah Ni'mat Allah-i Vali he hosted distinguished visitors among them Ismail Safavi, who had proclaimed himself Shahanshah of Iran in 1501 after having taken Tabriz, the symbolic and political capital of Iran".
  15. ↑ Heinz Halm, Janet Watson, Marian Hill, Shiʻism, translated by Janet Watson, Marian Hill, Edition: 2, illustrated, published by Columbia University Press, 2004, p. 80: "...he was able to make his triumphal entry into Alvand's capital Tabriz. Here he assumed the ancient Iranian title of King of Kings (Shahanshah) and setup up Shiʻi as the ruling faith"
  16. ↑ Safawids.
  17. ↑ Encyclopaedia.
  18. ↑ Ward, Steven R (2014).
  19. ↑ Sinclair, T.A.
  20. ↑ Edge of empires.
  21. ↑ Christine Woodhead (2011). The Ottoman World. Routledge. p. 94
  22. ↑ Mikhail (2020), pp. 258–259.
  23. ↑ Karagoz (2017), p. 72.
  24. ↑ "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica
  25. ↑ Tahmasp.
  26. ↑ Streusand, p. 146.
  27. ↑ Streusand, p. 146.
  28. ↑ H.R. Roemer, "The Safavid Period" in The Timurid and Safavid Periods ed. by Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, volume 6 of The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1968–1991) ("Roemer"), pp. 233–234.
  29. ↑ Roemer, p. 234
  30. ↑ Romer, pp. 234–237.
  31. ↑ Roger Savory, Iran under the Safavids, pp. 60–64.
  32. ↑ Streusand, pp. 146–147.
  33. ↑ Colin P. Mitchell, The Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran: Power, Religion and Rhetoric (London: I.B. Tauris, 2000), p. 59.
  34. ↑ Streusand, p. 147.
  35. ↑ Mikheil Svanidze, "The Amasya Peace Treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Iran (June 1, 1555) and Georgia," Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 3, pp. 191–97 (2009) ("Svanidze"), p. 191.
  36. ↑ Streusand, p. 147.
  37. ↑ Shah Tahmasp I.
  38. ↑ A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, Vol. II, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010). 516.
  39. ↑ John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, c. 1995), p. 11.
  40. ↑ John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, c. 1995), p. 11.
  41. ↑ Riazul Islam; Indo-Persian Relations: A Study of the Political and Diplomatic Relations between the Mughal Empire and Iran (Tehran: Iranian Cultural Foundation, 1970), pp. 22–47.
  42. ↑ John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, c. 1995), p. 11.
  43. ↑ Savory, R, Iran under the Safavids, p. 66.
  44. ↑ Savory, pp. 129–131.
  45. ↑ Javadi & Burrill 1988.
  46. ↑ Mitchell 2009b
  47. ↑ Simpson 2009.
  48. ↑ Soudavar 2017, p. 51.
  49. ↑ Mitchell 2009b; Streusand 2019, p. 191
  50. ↑ Ghasem Zadeh 2019, p. 4.
  51. ↑ Mitchell 2009b.
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