Wikipedia

Binciken halittu

Bioprospecting (wanda aka fi sani da Binciken halittu) bincike ne na tushen halitta don ƙananan kwayoyin, macromolecules da bayanan kwayoyin halitta da kwayoyin halitta waɗanda za a iya haɓaka su cikin samfuran kasuwanci masu mahimmanci don aikin noma, [2] about="#mwt42" class="mw-ref reference" data-cx="{}" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"name":"pmid30465306"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-pmid30465306-3","html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Transclusion\" data-mw=\"{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;templatestyles&quot;,&quot;attrs&quot;:{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css&quot;},&quot;body&quot;:{&quot;extsrc&quot;:&quot;&quot;},&quot;parts&quot;:[{&quot;template&quot;:{&quot;target&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;cite journal &quot;,&quot;href&quot;:&quot;./Template:Cite_journal&quot;},&quot;params&quot;:{&quot;vauthors&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;Pandey A, Yarzábal LA&quot;},&quot;date&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;January 2019&quot;},&quot;title&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;Bioprospecting cold-adapted plant growth promoting microorganisms from mountain environments&quot;},&quot;journal&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology&quot;},&quot;volume&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;103&quot;},&quot;issue&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;2&quot;},&quot;pages&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;643–657&quot;},&quot;doi&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;10.1007/s00253-018-9515-2&quot;},&quot;pmid&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;30465306&quot;},&quot;s2cid&quot;:{&quot;wt&quot;:&quot;53720063&quot;}},&quot;i&quot;:0}}]}\" data-ve-no-generated-contents=\"true\" id=\"mwA08\"> </span><cite about=\"#mwt39\" class=\"citation journal cs1\" id=\"CITEREFPandeyYarzábal2019\" data-ve-ignore=\"true\">Pandey A, Yarzábal LA (January 2019). \"Bioprospecting cold-adapted plant growth promoting microorganisms from mountain environments\". <i id=\"mwA1A\">Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology</i>. <b id=\"mwA1E\">103</b> (2): 643–657. <a class=\"mw-redirect cx-link\" data-linkid=\"670\" href=\"./Doi_(identifier)\" id=\"mwA1I\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00253-018-9515-2\" id=\"mwA1M\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">10.1007/s00253-018-9515-2</a>. <a class=\"mw-redirect cx-link\" data-linkid=\"671\" href=\"./PMID_(identifier)\" id=\"mwA1Q\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a><span id=\"mwA1U\" typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30465306\" id=\"mwA1Y\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">30465306</a>. <a class=\"mw-redirect cx-link\" data-linkid=\"672\" href=\"./S2CID_(identifier)\" id=\"mwA1c\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a><span id=\"mwA1g\" typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53720063\" id=\"mwA1k\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">53720063</a>.</cite>"}}' id="cite_ref-pmid30465306_3-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref">[./Bioprospecting#cite_note-pmid30465306-3 [2]] aquaculture, [3] bioremediation, [3] kayan shafawa, [4] [5] nanotechnology, [3] [4] ko masana'antun magunguna [4] [5] .[6][7][8][9] A cikin masana'antar magunguna, alal misali, kusan kashi ɗaya bisa uku na duk ƙananan magungunan da Hukumar Abinci da Magunguna ta Amurka (FDA) ta amince da su tsakanin 1981 da 2014, ko dai kayayyakin halitta ne ko mahadi da aka samo daga kayayyakin halitta.[10]

salon binciken hallitu
An gano magunguna masu mahimmanci da yawa ta hanyar binciken halittu ciki har da maganin ciwon sukari metformin (wanda aka haɓaka daga samfurin halitta da aka samo a cikin Galega officinalis). [1]

Tsire-tsire na ƙasa, fungi da actinobacteria sun kasance masu mayar da hankali ga shirye-shiryen bioprospecting dayawa da suka gabata, amma sha'awar tana girma a cikin yanayin halittu da ba'a bincika su ba (misali teku da teku) da kwayoyin halitta (misali myxobacteria, archaea) a matsayin hanyar gano sabbin mahadi tare da Ayyukan halittu na zamani. [6] [9][11][12] Ana iya tantance nau'o'in ba zato ba tsammani don aikin rayuwa ko zaɓaɓɓen tunani kuma ana tantance su bisa ga ilimin muhalli, Ethnobiological, ethnomedical, tarihi ko bayanan genomic.[9][13][14]

Lokacin da albarkatun halittu na yankin ko ilimin 'yan asalin sun kasance ba bisa ka'ida ba ko kuma anyi amfani dashi ta hanyar kasuwanci batare da samar da diyya mai kyau ba, wannan an san shi da biopiracy.[15] An tattauna yarjejeniyoyi daban-daban na kasa da kasa don samar da kasashe damar shari'a a yayin da akayi amfani da kwayoyin halitta da kuma ba 'yan wasan kasuwanci tabbacin shari'a don saka hannun jari. Wadannan sun hada da Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Bambancin Halitta da Yarjejeniya ta Nagoya.[2][9] WIPO a halin yanzu tana tattaunawa kan karin yarjejeniyoyi don magance gibin a wannan fagen.

Sauran haɗarin dake tattare da binciken halittu sune yawan girbi na jinsuna da lalacewar muhalli, amma an samar da dokoki don magance waɗannan. Misalan sun haɗa da dokokin ƙasa kamar Dokar Kare Mammal ta Amurka da Dokar Dabbobi Masu Hadari ta Amurka, da yarjejeniyar kasa da kasa kamar Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Bambancin Halitta, Yarjejeniyar UN kan Dokar Tekun, Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Treaty, da Yarjejeniyar Antarctic . [9][16]

Abubuwan da aka samo daga binciken halittu da kayayyaki

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Aikin noma

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Annonin-based biopesticides, wanda akayi amfani dashi don kare amfanin gona daga kwari da sauran kwari, an kirkiresu ne daga shuka Annona squamosa .

Abubuwan da aka samo daga binciken halittu da samfuran da akayi amfani dasu a aikin gona sun haɗa da biofertilizers, biopesticides da maganin rigakafi na dabbobi. Rhizobium wani nau'in kwayoyin cuta ne na ƙasa da ake amfani dasu azaman masu amfani da kwayoyin cuti, [17] Bacillus thuringiensis (wanda ake kira Bt) da annonins (wanda aka samo daga tsaba na shuka Annona squamosa) misalai ne na maganin rigakafi ne, [18] [19] da valnemulin da tiamulin (wanda aka gano kuma aka haɓaka daga basidiomycete fungi Omphalina mutila da Clitopilus passeckerianus) misalai na maganin rigamunan dabbobi ne.[20][21][22]

Gyara Rayuwa

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Misalan samfuran bioprospecting da aka yi amfani dasu a cikin bioremediation sun haɗa da Coriolopsis gallica- da Phanerochaete chrysosporium-derived laccase enzymes, waɗanda akayi amfani dasu don magance ruwan da akayi da giya da kuma lalata da kuma lalata kayan aikin takarda.[8]

Kayan shafawa da kula da mutum

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Kayan shafawa da kayayyakin kulawa da aka samo daga bioprospecting sun haɗa da Porphyridium cruentum-derived oligosaccharide da oligoelement blends da akayi amfani dasu don magance erythema (Rosecea, flushing da duhu da'irori), [6] Xanthobacter autotrophicus-derived zeaxanthin da akayi aiki don ruwa da UV kariya, [7] Clostridium histolyticum-derivative collagenases da akayi dasu don sake farfado da fata, [7] Microsporum-deriven keratinases da akayi šomi da akayi don cire gashi.

Nanotechnology da biosensors

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Saboda laccases na microbial suna da kewayon substrate mai yawa, ana iya amfani dasu a cikin fasahar biosensor don gano nau'ikan kwayoyin halitta da yawa. Misali, ana amfani da electrodes masu dauke da laccase don gano mahaɗan polyphenolic a cikin ruwan inabi, da lignins da phenols a cikin Ruwa mai guba.[8]

Magunguna

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Fayil:Streptomyces griseus.jpg
An gano maganin tarin fuka streptomycin daga actinomycete Streptomyces griseus . [9]

Yawancin Magungunan rigakafin ƙwayoyin cuta da ake amfani dasu a yanzu an gano su ta hanyar bioprospecting ciki har da aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, amphenicols, polymyxins, cephalosporins da sauran maganin rigakafin β-lactam, macrolides, pleuromutilins, glycopeptides, rifamycins, lincosamides, streptogramins, da maganin rigakafi na phosphonic acid.[9] Misali, an gano maganin rigakafin aminoglycoside streptomycin daga kwayar cutar Streptomyces griseus, an gano kwayar cutar fusidane daga kwayar halitta Acremonium fusidioides, kuma an gano maganin maganin rigakafi na pleuromutilin (misali lefamulin) kuma an haɓaka shi daga kwayar cuta ta basidiomycete Omphalina mutila da Clitopilus passeckerianus . [9][21]

Sauran misalai na magungunan rigakafin cututtukan cututtukat da aka samo daga bioprospecting sun haɗa da maganin rigakafin ƙwayoyin cuta griseofulvin (wanda aka gano daga ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin halitta na ƙasa mai suna Streptomyces nodosus), [23] maganin rigakafi na ƙwayoyin cutar ƙwayoyin jiki mai suna Artemisinin (wanda aka samo daga shuka Artemisia annua), da maganin rigakatwa mai suna ivermectin (wanda aka haɓaka daga ƙwayohin ƙwayoyin jini mai suna Streepitomyces).[24][1][25][26]

An kirkiro magungunan da aka samo daga binciken halittu don maganin cututtukan da ba sa yaduwa da kuma yanayin. Wadannan sun hada da maganin rigakafin cutar kansa kwari" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Bleomycin">bleomycin (wanda aka samo daga kwayar cuta ta ƙasa Streptomyces verticillus), [27] maganin rigakafi mai hana rigakafi ciclosporin da akayi amfani dashi don magance cututtukan rigakafi irin su rheumatoid arthritis da psoriasis (wanda aka samu daga ƙwayoyin cuta na ƙasa Tolypocladium inflatum), maganin maganin rigakacin kumburi colchicine da akayi dashi don maganin cututtukansu (wanda aka samar daga shuke-tsarin Colchicine na Acetylum autnale), [1] maganin cututtainus), [3] maganin maganin cututtarine da cututtukar cututtuken Acetine (wanda akayi amfani dashi daga cututtukatare na cututtukun Acetine), [11] da cututtariteus), [4] da suka kamuwa da cututtsarin Acetine).[28]

Binciken halittu a matsayin dabarun ganowa

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Bioprospecting yana da ƙarfi da raunin a matsayin dabarun gano sabbin kwayoyin halitta, da kwayoyin da suka dace da cigaba da kasuwanci.

Ƙarfi

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Halichondrin B, misali na tsarin rikitarwa da kuma muhimmiyar kayan halitta [29]

ƙananan kwayoyin da aka samo daga binciken halittu (wanda akafi sani da samfuran halitta) sun fi rikitarwa fiye da sunadarai na roba, sabili da haka suna nuna mafi girman takamaiman ga manufofi na halitta. Wannan babban fa'ida ne a cikin ganowa da ci gaba da magunguna, musamman fannoni na magunguna na ganowa da haɓaka, inda tasirin da ba'ayi niyya bazai iya haifar da mummunan halayen magunguna.[9]

Kayan halitta sun fi dacewa da jigilar membrane fiye da mahaɗan roba. Wannan yana da fa'ida yayin haɓaka magungunan rigakafin ƙwayoyin cuta, wanda zai iya buƙatar ratsa duka membrane na waje da membrane na plasma don isa ga burinsu.[9]

Ga wasu sababbin kimiyyar halittu don aiki, yana da mahimmanci a sami enzymes waɗanda ke aiki a yanayin zafi mai yawa ko ƙasa. Misali na wannan shine polymerase chain reaction (PCR), wanda ya dogara da DNA polymerase wanda zai iya aiki a 60 ° C da sama.[12] A wasu yanayi, misali dephosphorylation, yana iya zama abin sha'awa a gudanar da martani a low zafin jiki.[11] Extremophile bioprospecting muhimmiyar tushe ce ta irin waɗannan enzymes, suna samar da enzymes masu tsayayya da zafi kamar <i id="mwAWM">Taq</i> polymerase (daga Thermus aquaticus), [12] da enzymes da suka dace da sanyi kamar shrimp alkaline phosphatase (daga Pandalus borealis). [11]

Tare da Yarjejeniyar Biological Diversity (CBD) yanzu da yawancin ƙasashe suka tabbatar, bioprospecting yana da damar kawo kasashe masu wadataccen halittu da fasaha tare, da kuma amfana dasu duka a ilimi da tattalin arziki (misali raba bayanai, canja wurin fasaha, sabon ci gaban samfur, biyan kuɗi). [2][30]

Ga kwayoyin da aka gano ta hanyar binciken microbial, sikelin samarwa yana yiwuwa a farashi mai kyau saboda ana iya al'ada kwayar cuta a cikin bioreactor.[7][31]

Rashin ƙarfi

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Zingiber officinale, misali na tsire-tsire na magani da akayi amfani da su a al'adu da yawa [32]

Kodayake an san wasu kwayoyin da zasu iya amfani sosai a cikin yanayi (misali kwayoyin lignocellulose-metabolizing), an fuskanci matsaloli wajen noma waɗannan a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje.[33] Wannan matsala na iya warwarewa ta hanyar sarrafa kwayoyin halitta masu sauƙin al'ada kamar Escherichia coli ko Streptomyces coelicolor don bayyana tarin kwayoyin halitta dake da alhakin aikin da akeso.[12][34]

Keɓewa da gano fili (s) dake da alhakin aikin kwayar halitta na iya zama da wahala.[34] Har ila yau, bayanin da ya biyo baya game da tsarin aikin mahaɗin da aka ware na iya cin lokaci.[34] Ci gaban fasaha a cikin ruwa chromatography, Mass spectrometry da sauran dabarun suna taimakawa wajen shawo kan waɗannan ƙalubalen.[34]

Aiwatar da aiwatar da yarjejeniyoyi da dokoki masu alaƙa da binciken halittu ba koyaushe yake da sauƙi ba.[2][30] Ci gaban miyagun ƙwayoyi tsari ne mai tsada da cin lokaci tare da ƙarancin nasara, kuma wannan yasa ya zama da wahala a ƙididdige darajar samfuran da za'a iya amfani dasu yayin tsara yarjejeniyar binciken halittu.[2] Hakkin mallakar ilimi na iya zama da wahala a bada kyauta. Misali, haƙƙin doka ga tsire-tsire na magani na iya zama mai rikitarwa idan mutane daban-daban ne suka gano shi a sassa daban-daban na duniya a lokuta daban-daban.[2]

Duk da yake rikitarwa na tsari na samfuran halitta yana da fa'ida a cikin binciken magani, yana iya sa ƙera ƙirar ƙwayoyin cuta da wuya. Wannan matsala wani lokacin ana iya warware ta hanyar gano ɓangaren tsarin samfurin halitta wanda ke da alhakin aiki da haɓaka analog ɗin roba mai sauƙi. Wannan ya zama dole tare da samfurin halitta halichondrin B, sauƙaƙe analog eribulin yanzu an amince da shi kuma ana tallata shi azaman maganin maganin cutar kansa.[35]

Rashin tabbas na nazarin halittu

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Kuskuren da kuma wuce gona da iri na iya faruwa a matakai daban-daban a cikin tsarin binciken halittu ciki har da tattara kayan tushe, tantance kayan tushe don aikin rayuwa, gwajin mahaɗan da aka ware don guba, da kuma gano hanyar aiki.

Tarin kayan tushe

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Gudanar da Voucher yana ba da damar sake kimanta asalin jinsuna idan akwai matsaloli dake sake ware wani abu mai aiki daga tushen halitta.[9]

Kafin tattara kayan halitta ko ilimin gargajiya, dole ne a sami izini daidai daga asalin ƙasar, mai mallakar ƙasa da sauransu. Rashin yin hakan na iya haifar da aikata laifuka da kin amincewa da duk wani aikace-aikacen patent na gaba. Har ila yau, yana da mahimmanci a tattara kayan halittu a cikin isasshen adadi, don samun kayan halittu da aka gano a hukumance, da kuma saka samfurin takardar shaidar tare da ajiya don adanawa da adanawa na dogon lokaci. Wannan yana taimakawa tabbatar da cewa duk wani muhimmin binciken da aka gano ana iya sake shi.[9][11]

Bioactivity da gwajin guba

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Lokacin da aka cire gwaje-gwaje da mahadi masu rarrabe don bioactivity da guba, amfani da daidaitattun ladabi (misali CLSI, ISO, NIH, EURL ECVAM, OECD) yana da kyau saboda wannan yana inganta daidaito na sakamakon gwajin da sakewa. Har ila yau, idan tushen kayan yana iya ƙunshe da sanannun (wanda aka gano a baya) mahadi masu aiki (misali streptomycin a cikin yanayin actinomycetes), to, yazama dole a cire waɗannan abubuwan da mahadi daga bututun binciken da wuri-wuri. Bugu da kari, yana da mahimmanci a yi la'akari da tasirin mai narkewa a kan sel ko layin tantanin halitta da ake gwadawa, don haɗawa da mahadi masu tushe (watau mahadi masu tsabta waɗanda keda cikakkiyar bioactivity da bayanan guba), don saita iyakoki akan lambar sashi na layin tantancewa (misali sassan 10-20), don haɗawa ga duk abubuwan da suka dace masu kyau da marasa kyau, da kuma sanin iyakokin gwaji. Wadannan matakai suna taimakawa wajen tabbatar da sakamakon gwaji daidai ne, ana iya sake shi kuma ana fassara shi daidai.[9][11]

Bayyana tsarin aiki

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Lokacin ƙoƙarin bayyana tsarin aikin wani abu ko fili mai zaman kansa, yana da mahimmanci a yi amfani da gwaje-gwaje masu yawa. Yin amfani da gwaji guda ɗaya kawai, musamman gwaji guda ɗaya na in vitro, yana ba da hoto mara cikakke na wani abu ko tasirin fili a jikin mutum.[36][37] A cikin yanayin Valeriana officinalis tushen cirewa, alal misali, tasirin dake haifar da barci na wannan cirewa saboda mahadi da hanyoyin da suka hada da hulɗa tare da Masu karɓar GABA da shakatawa na tsoka mai santsi.[36] Hakanan za'a iya kuskuren tsarin aiki na fili mai zaman kansa idan akayi amfani da gwaji guda ɗaya saboda wasu mahadi suna tsoma baki tare da gwaje-gwaje. Misali, gwajin sulfhydryl-scavenging da akayi amfani dashi don gano histone acetyltransferase inhibition na iya bada sakamako mai kyau idan mahaɗin gwajin ya amsa tare da cysteines.[37]

Rashin hankula

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Pat Mooney ne ya kirkiro kalmar biopiracy, [38] don bayyana aikin da wasu ke amfani da ilimin asali na yanayi, wanda ya samo asali ne daga 'Yan asalin ƙasar, don riba, ba tare da izini ko diyya ga' yan asalin ƙasar da kansu ba. [39] Misali, lokacin da masu binciken halittu suka yi amfani da ilimin asali na tsire-tsire na magani wanda daga baya kamfanonin kiwon lafiya suka ba da izini ba tare da sanin gaskiyar cewa ilimin ba sabon abu ba ne ko kuma mai bada izinin ya kirkireshi ba, wannan yana hana al'ummar 'yan asalin damar da suka samu ga samfurin kasuwanci wanda aka samo daga fasahar da kansu suka bunkasa ba.[40] Masu sukar wannan aikin, kamar Greenpeace, suna da'awar cewa waɗannan ayyukan suna ba da gudummawa ga rashin daidaito tsakanin ƙasashe masu tasowa masu wadata da bambancin halittu, da ƙasashe masu cigaba dake karɓar kamfanonin biotech. [41][40]

A cikin shekarun 1990s yawancin manyan kamfanonin magunguna da magunguna sun amsa ga cajin biopiracy ta hanyar dakatar da aiki a kan kayayyakin halitta, suna juyawa zuwa ilmin sunadarai don haɓaka sabbin mahadi.[38]

Shahararrun shari'o'in satar halittu

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Fararen periwinkle mai ruwan hoda

Rosy periwinkle case ya samo asali ne daga shekarun 1950. Rosy periwinkle, yayin da yake asalin Madagascar, an gabatar dashi a wasu ƙasashe masu zafi a duniya kafin gano vincristine. An bayar da rahoton kasashe daban-daban da suka sami imani daban-daban game da kaddarorin kiwon lafiya na shuka.[42] Wannan yana nufin cewa masu bincike zasu iya samun ilimin gida daga wata ƙasa kuma su shuka samfurori daga wata. Amfani da shuka don Ciwon sukari shine asalin motsawa don bincike. An gano tasiri a cikin maganin Hodgkin lymphoma da leukemia a maimakon haka.[43] Magungunan Hodgkin lymphoma chemotherapeutic vinblastin ana iya samo shine daga periwinkle mai laushi.[44]

Rikici na Maya ICBG

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Rikici na binciken halittu na Maya ICBG ya faru ne a cikin 1999-2000, lokacin da aka zargi Ƙungiyar Haɗin Kai ta Duniya da Masanin ilimin halittu Brent Berlin da shiga cikin nau'ikan binciken halittu da basu dace bata hanyar kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu da kungiyoyin 'yan asalin ƙasar. ICBG ta yi niyyar yin rikodin bambancin halittu na Chiapas, Mexico, da kuma ilimin ethnobotanical na 'yan asalin Maya - don tabbatar da ko akwai yiwuwar haɓaka samfuran kiwon lafiya bisa ga kowane tsire-tsire da kungiyoyin' yan asalin sukayi amfani dasu.[45]

Shari'ar Maya ICBG ta kasance daga cikin na farko da ta jawo hankali ga matsalolin rarrabewa tsakanin nau'ikan bioprospecting da biopiracy mara kyau, da kuma matsalolin tabbatar da shiga cikin al'umma da kuma amincewar da aka ba da labari ga masu binciken bioprospectors.[46]

Itacen neem

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Itacen neem

A cikin 1994, Ma'aikatar Aikin Gona ta Amurka da W. R. Grace da Kamfanin sun sami takardar shaidar Turai kan hanyoyin sarrafa cututtukan ƙwayoyin cuta a cikin tsire-tsire ta amfani da abun da ya haɗa da abubuwan da aka cire daga itacen neem (Azadirachta indica), wanda ke girma a duk faɗin Indiya da Nepal. [47] [48] A shekara ta 2000 kungiyoyi dayawa daga EU da Indiya sunyi nasarar adawa da takardar shaidar ta hanyar tsayayya da ita ta hanyar tsaron EU, Vandana Shiva, da kuma Tarayyar Kasa da Kasa ta Motsi na Aikin Gona (IFOAM) bisa ga cewa an san aikin fungicidal na ƙwayar neem a cikin maganin gargajiya na Indiya.[48] WR Grace ta daukaka kara kuma ta rasa a shekara ta 2005.

Shinkafa ta Basmati

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A cikin shekara ta 1997, kamfanin RiceTec na Amurka (wani reshe na RiceTec AG na Liechtenstein) yayi ƙoƙari yabada izini ga wasu nau'ikan shinkafa na basmati da shinkafa mai tsawo.[49] Gwamnatin Indiya ta kalubalanci wannan takardar shaidar kuma, a cikin shekara ta 2002, goma sha biyar daga cikin takardar shaidarsa ashirin sun zama marasa inganci.[50]

Yaƙin Enola

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Yaƙin Enola

Enola bean iri-iri ne na ruwan hoda mai launin rawaya na Mexico, wanda ake kira bayan matar mutumin da yabada izini a shekarar 1999. [51] Abubuwan da ake zargin bambance-bambance na iri-iri shine tsaba na takamaiman inuwa na rawaya. Mai mallakar takardar shaidar daga baya ya kai karar masu shigo da wake masu launin rawaya na Mexico tare da sakamakon da ya biyo baya: "... tallace-tallace na fitarwa nan da nan ya sauka sama da 90% tsakanin masu shigo da kaya dake sayar da waɗannan wake shekaru dayawa, wanda ya haifar da lalacewar tattalin arziki ga manoma sama da 22,000 a arewacin Mexico waɗanda suka dogara da tallace-kashen wannan wake. " An shigar da karar a madadin manoma kuma, a cikin 2005, US-PTO tayi mulki a madadin Manoma.[52] A shekara ta 2008, an soke takardar shaidar.[53]

Hoodia gordonii

gyara sashe
 
Hoton mai suna Hoodia gordonii

Hoodia gordonii, shuka mai ɗanɗano, ya samo asali ne daga hamadar Kalahari ta Afirka ta Kudu. Domin tsararraki an san shi ga Mutanen San da ke rayuwa a al'ada a matsayin mai hana cin abinci. A cikin 1996 Majalisar Afirka ta Kudu don Binciken Kimiyya da Masana'antu tafara aiki tare da kamfanoni, gami da Unilever, don haɓaka ƙarin abinci bisa ga Hoodia.[54][55][56] Asalin mutanen San ba'a shirya su sami wata fa'ida daga kasuwanci na ilimin gargajiya ba, amma a cikin 2003 Majalisar San ta Afirka ta Kudu ta yi yarjejeniya da CSIR inda zasu sami daga 6 zuwa 8% na kudaden shiga daga sayar da kayayyakin Hoodia.

A shekara ta 2008 bayan sun saka Yuro miliyan 20 a cikin R&D a kan Hoodia a matsayin mai yuwuwar sinadarin abinci don asarar nauyi, Unilever ta dakatar da aikin saboda binciken asibiti bai nuna cewa Hoodia yana da aminci kuma yana da inganci don kawowa kasuwa ba.[57]

Ƙarin shari'o'i

gyara sashe

Wadannan sune zaɓin ƙarin shari'o'in da suka faru kwanan nan na biopiracy. Yawancin su basu da alaƙa da magungunan gargajiya.

  • Kashi talatin da shida na satar halittu a Afirka.[58]
  • Labarin abin sha na mutanen Maya.[59][60]
  • Lamarin Maya da sauran mutane suna amfani da Mimosa tenuiflora da sauran lokuta dayawa.[61]
  • Lamarin maca radish na Andean.[62]
  • Abubuwan da suka shafi turmeric (India), karela (India), quinoa (Bolivia), Mantuwa da 'ya'yan itace (Gabon), da sauransu. [63][64]
  • Labarin captopril (wanda aka haɓaka daga guba ta ƙabilar Brazil). [65]

Al'amuran shari'a da siyasa

gyara sashe

Dokar haƙƙin mallaka

gyara sashe

Ɗaya daga cikin rashin fahimta na yau da kullun shine kamfanonin magunguna sun bada izini ga tsire-tsire da suke tattarawa. Duk da yake samun takardar shaidar a kan kwayar halitta kamar yadda aka sani ko aka yi amfani da ita a baya bazai yiwu ba, ana iya fitar da takardun shaida a kan takamaiman sunadarai da aka ware ko haɓaka daga tsire-tsire. Sau dayawa ana samun waɗannan takardun shaida tare da bayyanawa da bincike game da amfani da waɗannan sunadarai.  [ana buƙatar hujja][ana buƙatar ƙa'ida] Gabaɗaya wanzuwar, tsari da kira na waɗancan mahadi ba wani ɓangare ne na ilimin likitanci na asali wanda ya jagoranci masu bincike su bincika shuka da farko. A sakamakon haka, koda kuwa an dauki ilimin likitanci na asali a matsayin fasaha ta baya, wannan ilimin da kansa bayasa mahaɗin sinadarai mai aiki "a bayyane" wanda shine ma'auni da akayi amfani dashi a ƙarƙashin dokar patent.

A cikin Amurka, ana iya amfani da dokar patent don kare mahadi "mai keɓewa da tsarkakewa" - har ma, a cikin misali ɗaya, sabon sinadarin sunadarai (duba USP 3,156,523). A cikin 1873, Louis Pasteur ya ba da izini ga "yisti" wanda "ba shi da cuta" (patent # 141072). An bi da takardun shaida da ke rufe abubuwan kirkirar halittu iri ɗaya. A cikin shari'ar 1980 na Diamond v. Chakrabarty, Kotun Koli ta amince da takardar shaidar a kan kwayar cuta da aka gyara ta hanyar kwayar cuti don cinye man fetur, tana tunanin cewa dokar Amurka ta bada izinin takardar shaidaya a kan "duk abin da mutum yayi a ƙarƙashin rana". Ofishin Jakadancin Amurka da Trademark (USPTO) ya lura cewa "takardar shaidar kan kwayar halitta ta rufe kwayar halitta da aka ware kuma ta tsarkake amma ba ta rufe kwaya kamar yadda take faruwa a cikin yanayi".

Hakanan yana yiwuwa a ƙarƙashin dokar Amurka shine ba da izini ga cultivar, sabon nau'in kwayoyin dake akwai. Takardar shaidar a kan wake na Enola (yanzu an soke shi) [66] misali ne na irin wannan takardar shaidar. Dokokin mallakar ilimi na Amurka sun kuma amince da haƙƙin masu shuka a ƙarƙashin Dokar Kare Tsire-tsire, 7 USC §§ 2321-2582.[67] 

Yarjejeniyar Biological Diversity

gyara sashe
 
   

Yarjejeniyar Biological Diversity (CBD) ta fara aiki a 1993. Ya sami haƙƙin sarrafa damar samun albarkatun kwayar halitta ga ƙasashen da waɗannan albarkatun suke. Ɗaya daga cikin manufofin CBD shine don bada damar ƙasashe masu tasowa don amfana da albarkatunsu da ilimin gargajiya. A karkashin ka'idojin CBD, ana buƙatar masu binciken halittu don samun izinin samun damar samun irin waɗannan albarkatun, kuma dole ne su raba duk fa'idodi tare da ƙasar dake da wadataccen halittu.[68] Koyaya, wasu masu sukar sunyi imanin cewa CBD ta kasa kafa ƙa'idodi masu dacewa don hana satar halittu. Sauran suna da'awar cewa babban matsalar ita ce gazawar gwamnatocin ƙasa don zartar da dokoki masu dacewa da aiwatar da tanadin CBD.[69] Yarjejeniyar Nagoya ga CBD, wacce ta fara aiki a cikin 2014, ta bada ƙarin ƙa'idodi.[70] Kasashe 196 da hukunce-hukuncen duniya sun tabbatar da CBD, sun yarda ko kuma sun yarda da ita, tare da banbanci ciki har da Mai Tsarki da Amurka.[71]

Yarjejeniyar Bincike

gyara sashe

Abubuwan da ake buƙata don binciken halittu kamar yadda CBD ta saita sun kirkiro sabon reshe na haƙƙin mallaka na duniya da Dokar kasuwanci, kwangilar binciken halittu.[2] Kundin bincike na halittu ya kafa ka'idojin raba fa'idodi tsakanin masu bincike da ƙasashe, kuma yana iya kawo sarauta ga Kasashe masu tasowa. Koyaya, kodayake waɗannan kwangila sun dogara ne akan yardar da aka ba da labari da diyya (ba kamar biopiracy ba), kowane mai shi ko mai ɗaukar ilimin asali da albarkatun ba koyaushe ake tuntuɓar ko biyan diyya ba, saboda zai zama da wahala a tabbatar da cewa an haɗa kowane mutum.[72][73] Saboda wannan, wasu sun ba da shawarar cewa 'yan asalin ko wasu al'ummomi sun samar da wani nau'i na wakilin karamin gwamnati wanda zai tattauna da masu bincike don samar da kwangila ta hanyar da al'umma zata amfana daga shirye-shiryen.[73] Ana iya kallon kwangilar bioprospecting mara kyau (kamar yadda ya bambanta da na ɗabi'a) a matsayin sabon nau'in biopiracy.

Misali na kwangilar bioprospecting shine yarjejeniyar tsakanin Merck da INBio na Costa Ruwa. [74]

Bayanan ilimin gargajiya

gyara sashe

Saboda shari'o'in da suka gabata na biopiracy da kuma hana ƙarin shari'oʼi, Gwamnatin Indiya ta canza bayanan gargajiya na Indiya daga rubuce-rubucen tsohuwar da sauran albarkatun zuwa albarkatun lantarki; wannan ya haifar da Laburaren Al'adun Al'ada a cikin 2001.[75] Ana rubuta matani daga Tamil, Sanskrit, Urdu, Farisa da Larabci; ana samun su ga ofisoshin patent a Turanci, Jamusanci, Faransanci, Jafananci da Mutanen Espanya. Manufar itace kare al'adun Indiya daga kamfanonin kasashen waje dake amfani dasu. Ana kuma adana daruruwan yoga a cikin tarin.[76] Har ila yau, ɗakin karatu ya sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyoyi tare da manyan Ofisoshin patent na kasa da kasa kamar su Ofishin Patent na Turai (EPO), Ofishin Trademark & Patent na Burtaniya (UKTPO) da Ofishin Patent da Trademark na Amurka don kare ilimin gargajiya daga biopiracy yayin da yake bada damar masu jarrabawa a Ofisoshin Patent na Duniya don samun damar bayanan TKDL don bincike da jarrabawa.[63]

Dubi kuma

gyara sashe

Manazarta

gyara sashe
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Buenz EJ, Verpoorte R, Bauer BA (January 2018). "The ethnopharmacologic contribution to bioprospecting natural products". Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 58 (1): 509–530. doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010617-052703. PMID 29077533.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 "Mobilizing funding for biodiversity conservation: a user-friendly training guide" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Beattie AJ, Hay M, Magnusson B, de Nys R, Smeathers J, Vincent JF (May 2011). "Ecology and bioprospecting". Austral Ecology. 36 (3): 341–356. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2010.02170.x. PMC 3380369. PMID 22737038.
  4. ↑ Mazarrasa I, Olsen YS, Mayol E, Marbà N, Duarte CM (October 2014). "Global unbalance in seaweed production, research effort and biotechnology markets". Biotechnology Advances. 32 (5): 1028–36. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2014.05.002. PMID 24858315.
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  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Abida H, Ruchaud S, Rios L, Humeau A, Probert I, De Vargas C, Bach S, Bowler C (November 2013). "Bioprospecting marine plankton". Marine Drugs. 11 (11): 4594–4611. doi:10.3390/md11114594. PMC 3853748. PMID 24240981.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Gupta PL, Rajput M, Oza T, Trivedi U, Sanghvi G (August 2019). "Eminence of microbial products in cosmetic industry". Natural Products and Bioprospecting. 9 (4): 267–278. doi:10.1007/s13659-019-0215-0. PMC 6646485. PMID 31214881.
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  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 Cushnie TP, Cushnie B, Echeverría J, Fowsantear W, Thammawat S, Dodgson JL, Law S, Clow SM (June 2020). "Bioprospecting for antibacterial drugs: a multidisciplinary perspective on natural product source material, bioassay selection and avoidable pitfalls". Pharmaceutical Research. 37 (7): Article 125. doi:10.1007/s11095-020-02849-1. PMID 32529587. S2CID 219590658. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "pmid32529587" defined multiple times with different content
  10. ↑ Newman DJ, Cragg GM (March 2016). "Natural products as sources of new drugs from 1981 to 2014". Journal of Natural Products. 79 (3): 629–661. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b01055. PMID 26852623.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Svenson J (May 2012). "MabCent: Arctic marine bioprospecting in Norway". Phytochemistry Reviews. 12 (3): 567–578. doi:10.1007/s11101-012-9239-3. PMC 3777186. PMID 24078803.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Sysoev M, Grötzinger SW, Renn D, Eppinger J, Rueping M, Karan R (February 2021). "Bioprospecting of novel extremozymes from prokaryotes—the advent of culture-independent methods". Frontiers in Microbiology. 12: Article 630013. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2021.630013. PMC 7902512. PMID 33643258 Check |pmid= value (help).
  13. ↑ Saslis-Lagoudakis CH, Savolainen V, Williamson EM, Forest F, Wagstaff SJ, Baral SR, Watson MF, Pendry CA, Hawkins JA (September 2012). "Phylogenies reveal predictive power of traditional medicine in bioprospecting". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (39): 15835–40. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10915835S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1202242109. PMC 3465383. PMID 22984175.
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  39. ↑ vanc. Missing or empty |title= (help)
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  72. ↑ Shiva V (2007). "Bioprospecting as Sophisticated Biopiracy". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society (in Turanci). 32 (2): 307–313. doi:10.1086/508502. ISSN 0097-9740. S2CID 144229002.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Millum J (2010). "How Should the Benefits of Bioprospecting Be Shared?". Hastings Center Report (in Turanci). 40 (1): 24–33. doi:10.1353/hcr.0.0227. ISSN 1552-146X. PMC 4714751. PMID 20169653.
  74. ↑ Eberlee J (2000-01-21). "Assessing the Benefits of Bioprospecting in Latin America" (PDF). IDRC Reports Online. IDRC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-23. Retrieved 2013-11-03.
  75. ↑ Bisht TS, Sharma SK, Sati RC, Rao VK, Yadav VK, Dixit AK, Sharma AK, Chopra CS (March 2015). "Improvement of efficiency of oil extraction from wild apricot kernels by using enzymes". Journal of Food Science and Technology. 52 (3): 1543–51. doi:10.1007/s13197-013-1155-z. PMC 4348260. PMID 25745223.
  76. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :3

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