Tsarin Yarjejeniyar Antarctic
Yarjejeniyar Antarctic da yarjejeniyoyi masu alaƙa, waɗanda aka fi sani da Tsarin Yarjejeniyar Antarctic (ATS), suna tsara dangantakar ƙasashen duniya dangane da Antarctica, nahiyar duniya kawai batare da yawan mutane ba. Yarjejeniyar kula da makamai ce ta farko da aka kafa a lokacin Yaƙin Cold, inda aka sanya nahiyar a matsayin ajiyar kimiyya, ta kafa 'yancin bincike na kimiyya, da kuma haramta Ayyukan soja; don dalilan tsarin yarjejeniya, an bayyana Antarctica a matsayin duk ƙasar da kankara a kudancin 60 ° S latitude. Tun daga watan Satumbar 2004, Sakatariyar Yarjejeniyar Antarctic, wacce ke aiwatar da tsarin yarjejeniyar, tana da hedikwatar a Buenos Aires, Argentina.[1] An buɗe babban yarjejeniyar don sanya hannu a ranar 1 ga Disamba 1959, kuma a hukumance ta fara aiki a ranar 23 ga Yuni 1961. [2] Masu sa hannu na asali sune kasashe 12 dake aiki a Antarctica a lokacin Shekarar Geophysical ta Duniya (IGY) ta 1957-58: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, Faransa, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Afirka ta Kudu, Tarayyar Soviet, Ingila, da Amurka. Wadannan kasashe sun kafa Tashoshin bincike na Antarctic sama da 55 don IGY, kuma an ga gabatar da yarjejeniyar a matsayin furcin diflomasiyya na hadin gwiwar aiki da kimiyya da aka cimma. Ya zuwa 2024, yarjejeniyar tana da jam'iyyun 57.[3]
Tarihi
gyara sashe
Shekaru na 1940
gyara sasheBayan Yaƙin Duniya na II, Amurka tayi la'akari da kafa da'awar a Antarctica. Daga 26 ga watan Agustan shekara ta 1946, har zuwa farkon shekara ta 1947, ta gudanar da Operation Highjump, babbar rundunar sojan da Amurka ta taba aikawa zuwa Antarctica, wanda ya kunshi jiragen ruwa 13, mutane 4,700, da na'urorin sama da yawa. Manufofinta sune horar da ma'aikatan soja da kuma gwada kayan aiki a yanayin matsanancin sanyi don yakin da ba a tsammani ba a Antarctic.
A ranar 2 ga Satumba 1947, an haɗa yankin Antarctica wanda Amurka keda sha'awar (tsakanin 24 ° W da 90 ° W) a matsayin wani ɓangare na yankin tsaro na Yarjejeniyar Taimako ta Inter-American, yana mai da membobinta su kare shi idan akwai tashin hankali na waje.
A watan Agustan 1948, Amurka ta ba da shawarar cewa Antarctica ta kasance ƙarƙashin kulawar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, a matsayin yankin amincewa wanda Argentina, Australia, Chile, Faransa, Amurka, Ingila, da New Zealand ke gudanarwa. Argentina, Australia, Chile, Faransa, da Norway sun ki amincewa da wannan ra'ayin. Kafin kin amincewa, a ranar 28 ga watan Agusta 1948, Amurka ta bada shawarar ga ƙasashen dake da'awar wani nau'i na ƙasashen duniya na Antarctica, kuma Ƙasar Ingila ta goyi bayan wannan. Chile ta mayar da martani ta hanyar gabatar da shirin dakatar da duk ikirarin Antarctic na shekaru biyar zuwa goma yayin tattaunawar mafita ta ƙarshe, amma wannan bai sami karɓa ba.
A cikin 1950, sha'awar Amurka ta kiyaye Tarayyar Soviet daga Antarctica yayi takaici, lokacin da Soviets suka sanar da masu da'awar cewa baza su yarda da wata yarjejeniyar Antarctic ba inda ba a wakilta su ba. Tsoron cewa USSR zata mayar da martani ta hanyar yin ikirarin yankin, kawo Yakin Cold zuwa Antarctica, ya jagoranci Amurka ta yi komai.
Rikicin kasa da kasa
gyara sasheRikicin kasa da kasa daban-daban ya haifar da kirkirar yarjejeniya ga Antarctic.
Wasu abubuwan da suka faru sun faru a lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, kuma sabon ya faru a Hope Bay a ranar 1 ga Fabrairu 1952, lokacin da sojojin Argentina suka harbe harbe-harbe na gargadi a kan wani rukuni na Britons. Amsar Burtaniya ita ce ta aika da jirgin yaki wanda ya sauka da sojan ruwa a wurin a ranar 4 ga Fabrairu.[4] A cikin 1949, Argentina, Chile, da United Kingdom sun sanya hannu kan wata sanarwa ta Sojan Ruwa ta Tripartite da ke yin alkawarin kada su aika jiragen yaki a kudu da 60th parallel south, wanda aka sabunta shi kowace shekara har zuwa 1961 lokacin da aka ɗauka ba dole bane lokacin da yarjejeniyar tafara aiki. An sanya hannu kan wannan sanarwar ta uku bayan tashin hankali da aka haifar lokacin da Argentina ta aika da jiragen yaki takwas zuwa Antarctica a watan Fabrairun 1948.
A ranar 17 ga watan Janairun 1953, Argentina ta sake bude mafaka ta Lieutenant Lasala a tsibirin Deception, inda ta bar sajan da kuma corporal a cikin Sojojin Ruwa na Argentina. A ranar 15 ga Fabrairu, a cikin abin da ya faru a tsibirin Deception, sojojin ruwa na sarauta 32 sun sauka daga jirgin ruwa na Burtaniya HMS <i id="mwWA">Snipe</i> dauke da bindigogi na Sten, bindigogi, da iskar hawaye da suka kama ma'aikatan jirgin ruwa biyu na Argentina. An lalata mafakar Argentine da mafakar Chile da ke kusa da ita, kuma an kai ma'aikatan jirgin ruwa na Argentina zuwa jirgin ruwa daga wannan ƙasar a ranar 18 ga Fabrairu kusa da Kudancin Georgia.[5] Wani rukuni na Burtaniya ya kasance watanni uku a tsibirin yayin da jirgin ya yi sintiri har zuwa watan Afrilu.
A ranar 4 ga Mayu 1955, Ƙasar Ingila ta shigar da kara biyu, a kan Argentina da Chile bi da bi, a gaban Kotun Shari'a ta Duniya don bayyana rashin ingancin da'awar ikon mallakar ƙasashen biyu a kan yankunan Antarctic da sub-Antarctic. A ranar 15 ga Yulin 1955, gwamnatin Chile taki amincewa da ikon kotun a wannan shari'ar, kuma a ranar 1 ga Agusta, gwamnatin Argentina ma tayi haka, don haka a ranar 16 ga Maris 1956, an rufe da'awar.[6][7]
A cikin 1956 da 1958, Indiya tayi ƙoƙari ba tare da nasara ba don kawo batun Antarctic ga Babban Taron Majalisar Dinkin Duniya.
Shekarar Geophysical ta Duniya
gyara sasheA cikin 1950, Majalisar Kwadago ta Kimiyya ta Duniya (ICSU) ta tattauna yiwuwar gudanar da Shekara ta Duniya ta uku. A kan shawarar Ƙungiyar Meteorological ta Duniya, an bada ra'ayin Shekarar Polar ta Duniya ga dukan duniyar, don haka ya haifar da Shekarar Geophysical ta Duniya data faru tsakanin 1 ga Yuli 1957, da 31 ga Disamba 1958. A cikin wannan taron, kasashe 66 sun shiga. A taron ICSU a Stockholm daga 9 zuwa 11 ga Satumba 1957, an amince da kirkirar Kwamitin Musamman na Binciken Antarctic (SCAR), yana gayyatar kasashe goma sha biyu dake gudanar da binciken Antarctic don aika wakilai don haɗa kwamitin, tare da manufar musayar bayanan kimiyya tsakanin membobinta game da Antarctica. Daga baya aka sake sunan SCAR zuwa Kwamitin Kimiyya na Bincike a Antarctica.
Dukansu Argentina da Chile sun bayyana cewa binciken da aka gudanar a nahiyar a lokacin Shekarar Geophysical ta Duniya ba zai ba da wani haƙƙin yanki ga mahalarta ba, kuma cewa ya kamata a rushe wuraren da aka gina a wannan shekarar a ƙarshen ta. Koyaya, a watan Fabrairun 1958, Amurka ta bada shawarar cewa ya kamata a tsawaita binciken Antarctic na wani shekara, kuma Tarayyar Soviet ta ba da rahoton cewa zata kula da tushen kimiyya har sai an kammala binciken da ake gudanarwa.
Tattaunawa game da yarjejeniyar
gyara sasheCibiyoyin kimiyya sun kara tashin hankali na kasa da kasa game da Antarctica. Hadarin Yakin Cold da ke yaduwa zuwa wannan nahiyar yasa Shugaban Amurka, Dwight D. Eisenhower, ya kira taron Antarctic na kasashe goma sha biyu dake aiki a Antarctica a lokacin Shekarar Geophysical ta Duniya, don sanya hannu kan yarjejeniya. A matakin farko, wakilan kasashe goma sha biyu sun hadu a Washington, wadanda suka hadu a zaman sittin tsakanin Yuni 1958 da Oktoba 1959 don bayyana tsarin tattaunawa na asali. Koyaya, ba a cimma yarjejeniya ba game da rubutun farko. A mataki na biyu, an gudanar da taron a matakin diflomasiyya mafi girma daga 15 ga Oktoba zuwa 1 ga Disamba 1959, lokacin da aka sanya hannu kan Yarjejeniyar.
Kasashe 12 ne suka sanya hannu kan Yarjejeniyar Antarctic a 1959 kuma tafara aiki a tsakiyar shekarun 1960. Babban ra'ayoyin da aka yarda dasu shine 'yancin bincike na kimiyya a Antarctica da kuma amfani da nahiyar cikin lumana. Har ila yau, akwai yarjejeniya don rashin aikin soja da kuma kula da halin da ake ciki. Yarjejeniyar ta haramta gwajin nukiliya, ayyukan soja, amfani da tattalin arziki, da kuma ikirarin yankin a Antarctica. Ana sa ido ta hanyar binciken yanar gizo. Tsarin dindindin da aka bada izini shine tashoshin bincike na kimiyya. Kasashen da suka sanya hannu na asali suna da haƙƙin jefa kuri'a a kan mulkin Antarctic, tare da bakwai daga cikinsu suna da'awar ɓangarorin nahiyar kuma sauran biyar ba masu neman bane. Sauran kasashe sun shiga a matsayin mambobi masu bada shawara ta hanyar gudanar da bincike mai mahimmanci a Antarctica. Jam'iyyun da basu da shawara na iya bin yarjejeniyar. A cikin 1991-1992, kasashe 33 sun sake tattauna yarjejeniyar, tare da babban canji shine Yarjejeniyar Madrid kan Kare Muhalli, wanda ya haramta hakar ma'adinai da binciken mai na tsawon shekaru 50.[8]
Matsayin Amurka, Tarayyar Soviet, Ingila, da New Zealand sun haɗu da kafa gwamnatin kasa da kasa don Antarctica, suna ba da shawarar cewa ya kamata ya kasance a cikin tsarin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya. Ostiraliya da Ingila sun nuna bukatar masu kallo, kuma Burtaniya ta bada shawarar amfani da ma'aikatan soja don ayyukan dabaru. Argentina ta ba da shawarar cewa a dakatar da duk fashewar nukiliya a Antarctica, wanda ya haifar da rikici wanda ya kasance har zuwa ranar ƙarshe ta taron, tunda Amurka, tare da wasu ƙasashe, sun yi niyyar hana kawai waɗanda aka yi ba tare da sanarwa ba kuma batare da tuntuɓar data gabata ba. Tallafin USSR da Chile ga shawarar Argentina a ƙarshe yasa Amurka ta janye adawar ta.
Sa hannu kan yarjejeniyar itace yarjejeniyar kula da makamai ta farko da tafaru a cikin tsarin Yakin Cold, kuma kasashe masu halarta sun sami nasarar kauce wa ƙasashen duniya na ikon mallaka Antarctic.
Ya zuwa shekara ta 2048, kowane bangare mai bada shawara ga yarjejeniyar na iya neman sake fasalin yarjejeniyar da dukan tsarin ka'idodinta, tare da amincewar mafi rinjaye.[9][10][11][12]
Sauran yarjejeniyoyi
gyara sashe
Sauran yarjejeniyoyi - wasu shawarwari 200 da aka karɓa a tarurrukan shawarwarin yarjejeniya kuma gwamnatoci suka tabbatar - sun haɗa da:
- Matakan da aka amince da su don kiyaye namun daji da tsire-tsire na Antarctic (1964) (sun fara aiki a 1982)
- Yarjejeniyar Kula da Tsaro na Antarctic Seals (1972)
- Yarjejeniyar Kula da Kula da albarkatun ruwa na Antarctic (1982) [13]
- Yarjejeniyar kan Dokar Ayyukan Ma'adanai na Antarctic (1988) (wanda aka sanya hannu a cikin 1988, ba a cikin aiki ba)
- An sanya hannu kan Yarjejeniyar Kare Muhalli ga Yarjejeniyar Antarctic a ranar 4 ga Oktoba 1991, kuma ta fara aiki a ranar 14 ga Janairun 1998; wannan yarjejeniyar ta hana ci gaba kuma ta samar da kariya ga yanayin Antarctic ta hanyar takamaiman abubuwan da aka haɗa guda biyar akan gurɓataccen ruwa, fauna da tsire-tsire, kimanta tasirin muhalli, kula da sharar gida, da wuraren da aka kiyaye. Ya haramta duk ayyukan da suka shafi albarkatun ma'adinai sai dai kimiyya. An karɓi shafi na shida game da alhakin daya taso daga gaggawa na muhalli a cikin shekara ta 2005, amma har yanzu bata shiga aiki ba.
Yarjejeniyar Biyu
gyara sasheTaron da akayi
gyara sasheTaron Tattaunawar Yarjejeniyar Antarctic na shekara-shekara (ATCM) shine taron kasa da kasa don gudanarwa da gudanar da yankin. Sai kawai 29 daga cikin jam'iyyun 57 da ke cikin yarjejeniyar suna da 'yancin shiga cikin yanke shawara a waɗannan tarurruka, kodayake har yanzu ana bada izinin sauran 28 su halarci. Wadanda suka yanke shawara sune Jam'iyyun shawarwari kuma, banda masu sa hannu 12 na asali, gami da kasashe 17 da suka nuna sha'awar su a Antarctica ta hanyar gudanar da ayyukan kimiyya masu yawa a can.[14] Yarjejeniyar Antarctic kuma tana da Taron Tattaunawar Tattaunawan Tattaunawa na Musamman na Antarctic (SATCM), waɗanda galibi ana kiran su don magance batutuwa masu mahimmanci amma basu dayawa da Taron Masana.[15]
Jam'iyyun
gyara sasheYa zuwa 2024, akwai jihohi 57 da suka shiga yarjejeniyar, [16] 29 daga cikinsu, gami da dukkan masu sanya hannu 12 na asali ga yarjejeniyar, suna da matsayin mai bada shawara (zaɓewa). [17] Mambobin masu bada shawara sun haɗa da ƙasashe 7 dake da'awar ɓangarorin Antarctica a matsayin yankinsu. Kasashe 49 da basu da'awar ba su yarda da ikirarin wasu ba. Jam'iyyun 42 na Yarjejeniyar Antarctic sun kuma tabbatar da "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty". [18]
- ↑ "ATS – Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty". ats.aq. Archived from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
- ↑ "Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. United Nations. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
- ↑ "Antarctic Treaty". United States Department of State. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ↑ "Falkland Islands Dependencies (Hope Bay Incident)". Parliament. 20 February 1952.
- ↑ "Historia y Arqueología Marítima. Churchill envió una fragata para repeler la "invasión" de las Malvinas por dos soldados Argentinos en 1953" [Maritime History and Archaeology. Churchill sent a frigate to repel the "invasion" of the Falklands by two Argentine soldiers in 1953.] (in Sifaniyanci).
- ↑ "Antarctica (United Kingdom v. Argentina)". International Court of Justice.
- ↑ "Antarctica (United Kingdom v. Chile))". International Court of Justice.
- ↑ Yao, Joanne (2021). "An international hierarchy of science: Conquest, cooperation, and the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System". European Journal of International Relations. 27 (4): 995–1019. doi:10.1177/13540661211033889. S2CID 238807417 Check
|s2cid=value (help). - ↑ "La Antártica después del año 2048" (in Sifaniyanci). El Mostrador. 20 January 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
- ↑ "La Antártica es urgente" (in Sifaniyanci). Revista Marina. 24 July 2021. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
- ↑ "Por qué es importante la Antártida para Uruguay con miras al 2048" (in Sifaniyanci). El Observador. 21 January 2021. Archived from the original on 6 January 2021. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
- ↑ "In 30 years the Antarctic Treaty becomes modifiable, and the fate of a continent could hang in the balance". The Conversation. 12 July 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
- ↑ "Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources – CCAMLR". ccamlr.org.
- ↑ "Welcome to the Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty Website". ats.aq.
- ↑ "List of Meetings". ats.aq. Retrieved 13 January 2020.
- ↑ "Antarctic Treaty". United States Department of State. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ↑ "Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Parties". Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ↑ "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty". United States Department of State. 27 October 2017. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
Bayani game da bangarorin dake cikin Tsarin Yarjejeniyar Antarctic
gyara sashe
* Yana da da'awar data dace da wani mai da'awar ko biyu.† Ya ajiye haƙƙin yin da'awar. [ana buƙatar hujja][<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span>]
Sakatariyar Yarjejeniyar Antarctic
gyara sasheSamfuri:AntarcticaAyyukan Sakatariyar Yarjejeniyar Antarctic za'a iya raba su zuwa yankuna masu zuwa:
- Goyon bayan taron shawarwari na Yarjejeniyar Antarctic (ATCM) na shekara-shekara da kuma taron Kwamitin Kare Muhalli (CEP).
- Sauƙaƙe musayar bayanai tsakanin bangarorin da ake buƙata a cikin Yarjejeniyar da Yarjejeniyar Muhalli.
- Tattara, adanawa, shirya da kuma buga takardun ATCM.
- Bayar da rarraba bayanai na jama'a game da tsarin Yarjejeniyar Antarctic da ayyukan Antarctic.
Tsarin shari'a
gyara sasheAntarctica a halin yanzu bata da yawan jama'a na dindindin sabili da haka bata da 'yan ƙasa ko gwamnati. Ma'aikatan dake Antarctica a kowane lokaci koyaushe 'yan ƙasa ne ko' yan ƙasa na wasu ikon mallaka a waje da Antarctica, saboda babu ikon mallaka na Antarctic. Kasashe daya ko fiye ne ke da'awar yawancin Antarctica, amma yawancin ƙasashe basu yarda da waɗannan da'awar ba. Yankin dake kan iyakar tsakanin digiri 90 na yamma da digiri 150 na yamma shine kawai babbar ƙasa a Duniya da bata da'awar kowace ƙasa.[13] Har zuwa shekara ta 2015 an yi la'akari da ciki na Sashin Norwegian, wanda ba a taɓa bayyana shi a hukumance ba, an dauke shi batare da an nema ba.[14] A wannan shekarar, Norway ta yi ikirarin yankin tsakanin Sarauniya Maud Land da Kudancin Pole.
Gwamnatocin dake cikin Yarjejeniyar Antarctic da Yarjejeniyarta kan Kare Muhalli suna aiwatar da sassan waɗannan yarjejeniyoyi, da yanke shawara da aka dauka a ƙarƙashin su, ta hanyar dokokin ƙasa. Wadannan dokoki galibi suna aiki ne kawai ga 'yan ƙasarsu, duk inda suke a Antarctica, kuma suna aiki don aiwatar da yanke shawara na yarjejeniya na jam'iyyun shawarwari: game da waɗanne ayyukan suna da karɓa, waɗanne yankuna suna buƙatar izini don shiga, waɗanne matakai na kimanta tasirin muhalli dole ne su riga ayyukan, da sauransu. Sau da yawa ana ɗaukar Yarjejeniyar Antarctic a matsayin misali na ka'idar al'adun ɗan adam.[15]
Ostiraliya
gyara sashe
Tun lokacin da aka sanya Yankin Antarctic na Australiya kafin sanya hannu kan Yarjejeniyar Antarctic, dokokin Australiya da ke da alaƙa da Antarctica sun kasance daga sama da shekaru ashirin kafin zamanin Yarjejeniyar Australiya. Dangane da dokar aikata laifuka, dokokin da suka shafi Yankin Jervis Bay (wanda ke bin dokokin Babban Birnin Australiya) sun shafi yankin Antarctic na Australiya. Muhimman dokokin Australiya dake amfani da yanke shawara na Tsarin Yarjejeniyar Antarctic sun haɗa da Dokar Yarjejeniyar Antarctic ta 1960, Dokar Yarjejeniya ta Antarctic (Kariya ta Muhalli) ta 1980 da Dokar Kare albarkatun Ruwa ta Antarctic ta 1981. [16]
Amurka
gyara sashedokar Amurka, gami da wasu laifuka na aikata laifuka ta ko a kan 'yan ƙasar Amurka, kamar kisan kai, na iya amfani da yankunan da ba'a ƙarƙashin ikon wasu ƙasashe ba. Don wannan dalili, Amurka yanzu ta sanya mataimakin Marshals na musamman a Antarctica don samar da kasancewar tilasta bin doka.[17]
Wasu dokokin Amurka suna aiki kai tsaye ga Antarctica. Misali, Dokar Kare Antarctic, Dokar Jama'a 95-541, 16 U.S.C. § da sauransu., yana bada hukuncin farar hula da na laifi ga ayyukan da suka biyo baya, sai dai idan doka ko doka ta ba da izini:
- ɗaukar dabbobi masu shayarwa ko tsuntsaye na Antarctic
- gabatarwar tsire-tsire da dabbobi da ba na asali ba a cikin Antarctica
- shigarwa cikin wuraren da aka kare musamman ko wuraren kimiyya
- zubar a ko zubar da gurbataccen abu a cikin ruwan Antarctica ko Antarctic
- shigo da wasu abubuwa zuwa Amurka daga Antarctica
Rashin bin Dokar Kare Antarctic yana ɗauke da hukuncin har zuwa US $ 10,000 a cikin tarar da shekara guda a kurkuku. Ma'aikatun Baitulmalin, Kasuwanci, Sufuri, da Cikin Gida suna da alhakin tilasta aiki. Dokar ta buƙaci balaguro daga Amurka zuwa Antarctica don sanar da, a gaba, Ofishin Oceans da Polar Affairs na Ma'aikatar Jiha, wanda ke bada rahoton irin waɗannan tsare-tsaren ga wasu ƙasashe kamar yadda Yarjejeniyar Antarctic ta buƙace. Ofishin Shirye-shiryen Polar na Gidauniyar Kimiyya ta Kasa yana bada ƙarin bayani.
New Zealand
gyara sasheA shekara ta 2006, 'yan sanda na New Zealand sun bada rahoton cewa batutuwan iko sun hana su bayar da takardun shaida ga shaidun Amurka waɗanda ba su da niyyar yin shaida a lokacin binciken Christchurch Coroner game da mutuwar ta hanyar guba na masanin kimiyyar taurari na Australiya Rodney Marks a sansanin Kudancin Pole a watan Mayu na shekara ta 2000.[18] Dokta Marks ya mutu yayin da yake cikin hunturu a Tashar Amundsen-Scott ta Kudu ta Amurka dake yankin Kudancin Kudancin. Kafin binciken gawa, an danganta mutuwar ga dalilai na halitta ta Gidauniyar Kimiyya ta Kasa da kuma dan kwangila dake gudanar da tushe. Koyaya, binciken gawa a New Zealand ya nuna cewa Dokta Marks ya mutu daga guba na methanol. 'Yan sanda na New Zealand sun kaddamar da bincike. A shekara ta 2006, yayi takaici da rashin cigaba, Christchurch Coroner yace bazai yiwu Dr. Marks yasha methanol da gangan ba, kodayake babu tabbacin cewa ya mutu sakamakon kai tsaye na aikin wani mutum. A lokacin tambayoyin kafofin watsa labarai, jami'in 'yan sanda dake kula da binciken ya soki Gidauniyar Kimiyya ta Kasa da dan kwangila Raytheon saboda rashin bada hadin kai ga binciken.[19][20][21]
Afirka ta Kudu
gyara sasheA karkashin Dokar 'yan Afirka ta Kudu a Antarctica, 1962, dokar Afirka ta Kudu ta shafi dukkan' yan Afirka ta Kudu dake Antarctica, kuma suna ƙarƙashin ikon Kotun majistare a Cape Town.[22] Dokar Yarjejeniyar Antarctic, 1996 ta haɗa da Yarjejeniyar Antárctic da yarjejeniyoyi masu alaƙa da dokar Afirka ta Kudu. Game da keta waɗannan yarjejeniyoyi, Afirka ta Kudu ta kuma tabbatar da iko a kan mazaunan Afirka ta Kudu da membobin tafiye-tafiye da aka shirya a Afirka ta Kudu.[23]
Dubi kuma
gyara sasheManazarta
gyara sasheHaɗin waje
gyara sashe- Sakatariyar Yarjejeniyar Antarctic
- Cikakken Rubutun Yarjejeniyar Antarctic
- Asalin facsimile na Yarjejeniyar Antarctic
- Yankin Antarctic na Australiya
- Me ya sa 60 Kudu?
- Gidauniyar Kimiyya ta Kasa - Ofishin Shirye-shiryen Polar
- Jerin dukkan Taron Tattaunawar Yarjejeniyar Antarctic An adana
- An Antarctic Solution for the Koreas San Diego Union-Tribune, 25 Agusta 2005 (Dukansu Koriya ta Kudu da Koriya ta Arewa mambobi ne na Yarjejeniyar Antarctic)
- Alamar Yarjejeniyar Antarctic
- ↑ "Antarctic Treaty". United States Department of State. 22 April 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Parties". Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ↑ "Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 "The Antarctic Treaty System: Introduction" (PDF). United States Department of State. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
- ↑ "Czech Republic: Succession to Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
- ↑ "Germany: Accession to Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
- ↑ Johnstone, Rachael Lorna; Jabour, Julia; Tamm, Sune (8 December 2018). "Iceland's Accession to the Antarctic Treaty". The Yearbook of Polar Law Online. 9 (1): 262–281. doi:10.1163/22116427_009010012. ISSN 2211-6427. S2CID 159373678.
- ↑ "Papua New Guinea: Succession to Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
- ↑ "Russian Federation: Ratification of Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
- ↑ "San Marino accedes to the Antarctic Treaty". Antarctic Treaty. Feb 22, 2023. Archived from the original on Mar 19, 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-28.
- ↑ "Slovakia: Succession to Antarctic Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
- ↑ "Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)". Department of International Relations and Cooperation. Archived from the original on Jul 13, 2011. Retrieved 5 October 2010.
- ↑ Wright, Minturn, "The Ownership of Antarctica, Its Living and Mineral Resources", Journal of Law and the Environment 4 (1987).
- ↑ "Dronning Maud Land". Norwegian Polar Institute. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
- ↑ Jennifer Frakes, The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle and the Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica: Will Developed and Developing Nations Reach a Compromise? Wisconsin International Law Journal. 2003; 21:409
- ↑ "Australian Antarctic Division – Australian environmental law and guidelines". Archived from the original on 19 May 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2007.
- ↑ (USMS), U.S. Marshals Service. "U.S. Marshals Service". usmarshals.gov. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2006.
- ↑ Hotere, Andrea. "South Pole death file still open". Sunday Star Times, 17 December 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
- ↑ Chapman, Paul. "New Zealand Probes What May Be First South Pole Murder". The Daily Telegraph, (14 December 2006), reprinted in The New York Sun (19 December 2006). Retrieved 19 December 2006.
- ↑ Booker, Jarrod. "South Pole scientist may have been poisoned". The New Zealand Herald, (14 December 2006). Retrieved 19 December 2006.
- ↑ "South Pole Death Mystery – Who killed Rodney Marks?" Sunday Star Times (21 January 2007)
- ↑ Section 2 of the South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, No. 55 of 1962, as amended by the Environmental Laws Rationalisation Act, No. 51 of 1997.
- ↑ Antarctic Treaties Act, No. 60 of 1996.