Wikipedia

Yarjejeniyar Makamai Masu Magunguna

 

Makamai masu magunguna
Likitoci masu aiki
magunguna

yarjejeniya Makamai Masu Magunguna (CWC), a hukumance Yarjejeniyar kan Hamtacciyar Cigaban, Fitarwa, Tattarawa da Amfani da Makamai Masu Gida da Halakar Su, yarjejeniyar kula da makamai ce da kungiyar ta haramta Makamai Masu Halitta (OPCW), ƙungiyar gwamnati dake zaune a The Hague, Netherlands. Yarjejeniyar ta fara aiki a ranar 29, ga Afrilu 1997. Ya haramta amfani da makamai masu guba, kuma ya haramta cigaba mai girma, samarwa, ajiya, ko canja wurin makamai masu sinadarai ko wadanda suka riga su, saidai don iyakantaccen dalilai (bincike, likita, magunguna ko kariya). Babban wajibi ne ga kasashe membobin a karkashin yarjejeniyar shine su aiwatar da wannan haramcin, da kuma lalata duk makaman sinadarai na yanzu. Dukkanin ayyukan lalacewa dole ne su faru a karkashin tabbatarwar OPCW.

As of August 2022 193, states have become parties to the CWC and accept its obligations. Israel has signed but not ratified the agreement, while three other UN member states (Egypt, North Korea and South Sudan) have neither signed nor acceded to the treaty.[1][2] Most recently, the State of Palestine deposited its instrument of accession to the CWC on 17, May 2018. In September 2013, Syria acceded to the convention as part of an agreement for the destruction of Syria's chemical weapons.[3]

Ya zuwa watan Fabrairun 2021, an lalata kashi 98.39% na kayan makamai masu guba a duniya.[4] Yarjejeniyar tana da tanadi don kimantawa na tsarin wuraren samar da sinadarai, da kuma bincike kan zarge-zargen amfani da samar da makamai masu sinadarai bisa ga bayanan wasu bangarorin jihohi.

Wasu sunadarai waɗanda akayi amfani dasu sosai a yaƙi amma suna da amfani da masana'antu dayawa (kamar phosgene) ana sarrafa su sosai; duk da haka, akwai wasu sanannun banbanci. Chlorine gas yana da guba sosai, amma kasancewa mai tsabta kuma ana amfani dashi sosai don dalilai na zaman lafiya, ba'a lissafa shi a hukumance a matsayin makami mai guba ba. Wasu iko na jihohi (misali Gwamnatin Assad ta Siriya) suna cigaba da kerawa da aiwatar da irin waɗannan sunadarai a cikin makamai masu yaƙi.[5] Kodayake waɗannan sunadarai ba'a lissafa su musamman kamar yadda CWC ke sarrafawa ba, amfani da duk wani sinadarin mai guba a matsayin makami (lokacin da akayi amfani dashi don samar da mutuwar kawai ko kuma galibi ta hanyar aikin guba) yarjejeniyar ta haramta shi. Sauran sunadarai, kamar fararen phosphorus, suna da guba sosai amma suna da doka a ƙarƙashin CWC lokacin da sojojin soja ke amfani dasu don wasu dalilai banda guba.[6]

Tarihi.

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CWC ta kara Yarjejeniyar Geneva ta 1925, wacce ta haramta amfani da makamai masu guba da kwayoyin halitta a cikin rikice-rikicen makamai na kasa da kasa, amma ba cigaban su ko mallaka ba.[7] CWC kuma ya haɗa da matakan tabbatarwa masu yawa kamar binciken kan shafin, wanda ya bambanta da Yarjejeniyar Makamai ta Biological (BWC), ta 1975, wanda bashi da tsarin tabbatarwa.[8]

Bayan sauye-sauye dayawa na suna da abun dake ciki, ENDC ta samo asali ne a cikin Taron kan Rashin Makamai (CD) a cikin 1984. [9] A ranar 3, ga Satumba 1992, CD ta gabatar da rahoton shekara-shekara ga Babban Taron Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, wanda ya ƙunshi rubutun Yarjejeniyar Makamai Masu Magunguna. Babban Taron ya amince da taron a ranar 30, ga Nuwamba 1992, kuma Sakatare Janar na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya buɗe taron don sa hannu a Paris a ranar 13, ga Janairun 1993. [10] CWC ta kasance a buɗe don sa hannu har saida ta fara aiki a ranar 29, ga Afrilu 1997, kwanaki 180 bayan ajiya a Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta Hungary na kayan aiki na 65, na tabbatarwa.[11]

Ƙungiyar hana Makamai Masu Magunguna (OPCW).

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Hedikwatar a Hague

Kungiyar haramtacciyar makamai masu guba (OPCW) ce ke gudanar da taron, wanda ke aiki a matsayin dandalin doka don ƙayyadaddun tanadin CWC.[12] Taron Kasashen Jihohi an bada umarni don canza CWC da kuma wuce ka'idoji kan aiwatar da bukatun CWC. Sakatariyar Fasaha ta kungiyar tana gudanar da bincike don tabbatar da bin kasashe membobin. Wadannan binciken sunyi niyya ga wuraren lalacewa (inda ke faruwa a kai a kai yayin lalacewa), wuraren samar da makamai masu guba waɗanda aka rushe ko canza su don amfani da farar hula, da kuma binciken masana'antar sinadarai. Sakatariyar na iya gudanar da "bincike game da zargin amfani" na makamai masu guba da kuma bada taimako bayan amfani da makamai masu sinadarai.  [ana buƙatar hujja][<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span>]

An bada Kyautar Nobel ta Zaman Lafiya ta 2013 ga kungiyar saboda, tare da Yarjejeniyar Makamai Masu Magunguna, "ta bayyana amfani da makamai masu guba a matsayin haramtacciyar doka a karkashin dokar kasa da kasa" a cewar Thorbjørn Jagland, Shugaban Kwamitin Nobel na Norway.[13]

Abubuwan da sukafi muhimmanci a taron.

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  • Hana samarwa da amfani da makamai masu guba.
  • Halakawa (ko saka idanu kan juyawa zuwa wasu ayyuka) na wuraren samar da makamai masu guba.
  • Halakar dukkan makamai masu guba (ciki har da makamai masu sinadarai da aka watsar a waje da yankin jam'iyyun jihar).
  • Taimako tsakanin Jam'iyyun Jiha da OPCW idan akayi amfani da makamai masu guba.
  • Tsarin dubawa na OPCW don samar da sunadarai wanda za'a iya canza shi zuwa makamai masu guba.
  • Haɗin gwiwar kasa da kasa a cikin amfani da sinadarai cikin lumana a yankuna masu dacewa.

Abubuwan da aka sarrafa.

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Yarjejeniyar ta bambanta nau'o'i uku na kayan sarrafawa, [14] [15] sunadarai waɗanda za'a iya amfani dasu azaman makamai da kansu ko amfani dasu wajen kera makamai. Rarrabawar ta dogara ne akan yawan abinda aka samar ta hanyar kasuwanci don dalilai na halal. Kowane aji ya kasu kashi na A, wanda shine sunadarai da za'a iya amfani dasu kai tsaye a matsayin makamai, da kuma kashi na B, wanda shine sinadarai masu amfani wajen kera makamai masu guba. Ya bambanta da masu gabatarwa, yarjejeniyar ta bayyana sunadarai masu guba a matsayin "[wani sinadarai mai guba wanda ta hanyar aikin sinadarai akan hanyoyin rayuwa na iya haifar da mutuwa, rashin ƙarfi na wucin gadi ko lahani na dindindin ga mutane ko dabbobi. Wannan ya haɗa da duk irin waɗannan sunadarai, batare da la'akari da asalin su ko hanyar samar dasu ba, kuma batare da komai ba ko an samar dasu a wurare, a cikin makamai ko a wasu wurare ba. "[a][16]

  • Shirin 1, sunadarai suna da kaɗan, ko babu amfani a waje da makamai masu guba. Ana iya samar da waɗannan ko amfani dasu don bincike, likita, magunguna ko gwajin kariya na makamai masu guba amma samarwa a wuraren dake samar da fiye da gram 100, a kowace shekara dole ne a bayyana ga OPCW.  Kasar tana iyakance ga samun matsakaicin tan 1, na waɗannan kayan. Misalan sune sulfur mustard da magungunan jijiyoyi, da abubuwa waɗanda ake amfani dasu ne kawai a matsayin sunadarai a cikin ƙera su. Wasu daga cikin wadannan sunadarai suna da ƙananan aikace-aikacen daba na soja ba, alal misali, ana amfani da milligram na nitrogen mustard don magance wasu cututtukan daji.
  • Shirin 2, sunadarai suna da aikace-aikace masu mahimmanci. Dole ne a ayyana masana'antu kuma akwai ƙuntatawa kan fitarwa zuwa ƙasashen daba masu sa hannu na CWC ba. Misali shine thiodiglycol wanda za'a iya amfani dashi a cikin masana'antar wakilai na mustard, amma kuma ana amfani dashi azaman mai narkewa a cikin tawada.
  • Shirin 3, sunadarai suna da amfani mai yawa ban da makamai masu guba. Shuke-shuke waɗanda ke ƙera fiye da tan 30, a kowace shekara dole ne a ayyana su kuma ana iya bincika su, kuma akwai ƙuntatawa kan fitarwa zuwa ƙasashe waɗanda ba masu sa hannu na CWC ba. Misalan waɗannan abubuwa sune phosgene (mafi yawan makamin sinadarai da akayi amfani dashi a WWI), [17] wanda aka yi amfani dashi azaman makamin sinidarai amma wanda kuma shine farkon masana'antar mahadi masu yawa na kwayoyin halitta (misali wakilai na magunguna da magungunan kashe kwari), da triethanolamine, wanda akayi aiki a cikin masana'antar nitrogen mustard amma kuma ana amfani dashi a cikin kayan wanka da kayan wanka.


Yawancin sunadarai da aka ambata a cikin jadawalin misalai ne kawai daga aji mai faɗi, wanda aka bayyana tare da Markush kamar harshe. Misali, duk sunadarai a cikin aji "O-Alkyl (<=C10, ciki har da cycloalkyl) alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr ko i-Pr) - sunadarai na phosphonofluoridates" ana sarrafa su, duk da cewa an bada wasu misalai masu suna, kamar Soman.

Wannan na iya sa yazama mafi ƙalubale ga kamfanoni su gano idan sunadarai da suke sarrafawa suna ƙarƙashin CWC, musamman Schedule 2, da 3, sunadarai (kamar sunadarai na Alkylphosphorus).Misali, Amgard 1045, mai hana wuta ne, amma yafada cikin Schedule 2B [18] a matsayin wani ɓangare na ajin sunadarai na Alkylphosphorus. Ana amfani da wannan hanyar a cikin dokokin miyagun ƙwayoyi masu sarrafawa a ƙasashe dayawa kuma galibi ana kiransu "masu kula da aji" ko "magana masu mahimmanci".

Saboda ƙarin rikitarwa waɗannan maganganun suna kawo gano sunadarai masu tsari, kamfanoni dayawa sun zaɓi aiwatar da waɗannan ƙididdigar ta hanyar lissafi, suna nazarin tsarin sunadarai ta amfani da kayan aikin silico waɗanda ke kwatanta su da maganganun doka, ko dai tare da tsarin gida da aka kiyaye kamfani ko ta hanyar amfani da hanyoyin biyan kuɗi na kasuwanci.[19]

Jam'iyyar yarjejeniya na iya ayyana "ƙananan kayan aiki guda ɗaya" wanda ke samar da har zuwa tan 1, na sunadarai na Schedule 1 don bincike, likita, magunguna ko dalilai na kariya a kowace shekara, kuma wani kayan aiki na iya samar da kilo 10, a kowace shekara don dalilai na gwaji na kariya.  Sauran wuraren da ba'a iyakance su ba na iya samar da sunadarai na Schedule 1, dangane da jimlar iyakar shekara-shekara ta 10 kg, don bincike, likita ko dalilai na magunguna, amma duk wani wurin dake samar da fiye da gram 100, dole ne a bayyana shi.[14] 

Yarjejeniyar ta kuma yi ma'amala da mahaɗan carbon da ake kira a cikin yarjejeniyar "masu sunadarai masu rarrabe", mafi yawansu suna nuna matsakaiciyar guba kai tsaye ko kuma ana iya canza su cikin mahaɗan dake da guba don amfani dasu azaman makami mai guba.[20] Waɗannan su ne duk wani mahadi na carbon ban da tsawo sarkar polymers, oxides, sulfides da carbonates na ƙarfe, kamar organophosphates. Dole ne a sanar da OPCW, kuma zai iya bincika, duk wani shuka dake samarwa (ko sa ran samarwa) fiye da tan 200, a kowace shekara, ko tan 30, idan sinadarin ya ƙunshi phosphorus, sulfur ko fluorine, sai dai idan shuka kawai ta samar da fashewa ko hydrocarbons.

Ma'anar rukuni.

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An raba makamai masu guba zuwa kashi uku: [21]

  • Sashe na 1 - bisa ga abubuwan da ke cikin jadawalin 1.
  • Sashe na 2 - bisa ga abubuwan da bana jadawalin 1 ba.
  • Sashe na 3 - na'urori da kayan aiki da aka tsara don amfani da makamai masu guba, batare da abubuwa da kansu ba.

Kasashen membobin.

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Kafin CWC tafara aiki a shekarar 1997, jihohi 165, sun sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar, suna basu damar tabbatar da yarjejeniyar bayan samun amincewar cikin gida.[1] Bayan shigar da yarjejeniyar ta fara aiki, an rufe shi don sa hannu kuma hanya ɗaya kawai ga jihohin da basu sa hannu ba don zama jam'iyya itace ta hanyar shiga. Ya zuwa Maris 2021, jihohi 193, wakiltar sama da kashi 98, cikin dari na yawan jama'ar duniya, suna cikin jam'iyyar CWC.[1] Daga cikin kasashe hudu na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da basu da hannu kan yarjejeniyar, Misira" id="mwwg" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Israel">Isra'ila ta sanya hannu amma bata tabbatar da yarjejeniyar ba, yayin da Masar, Koriya ta Arewa, da Sudan ta Kudu basu sanya hannu ko shiga yarjejeniyar ba. Taiwan, ko da yake ba memba bane, ya tabbatar da cewa yabi yarjejeniyar.[22]

Manyan kungiyoyin kasashe membobin.

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Jihohin membobin suna da wakilci a OPCW ta wakilin su na dindindin. Wannan aikin an haɗa shi da aikin Jakadan. Don shirya binciken OPCW da shirye-shiryen sanarwa, jihohin membobin dole ne su kafa Hukumar Kasa.[23]

Tarin makamai masu guba a duniya.

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  An ayyana jimlar ton 72,304 na wakili na sinadarai, da wuraren samarwa 97, ga OPCW.[4]

Lokaci na yarjejeniya.

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Yarjejeniyar ta kafa matakai dayawa tare da ƙayyadaddun zuwa ga cikakkiyar hallaka makamai masu guba, tare da hanyar neman tsawaita ƙayyadadden lokaci. Babu wata ƙasa data kai ga kawar da ita ta hanyar asalin yarjejeniyar koda yake dayawa sun gama a ƙarƙashin izinin tsawaitawa.[24]

Matakan Ragewa
Mataki % Ragewa Lokaci na ƙarshe Bayani
Na 1% Afrilu 2000  
Na biyu 20% Afrilu 2002 Cikakken lalacewar makamai marasa amfani, sunadarai masu mahimmanci, kayan aiki da tsarin makamai
Na Uku 45% Afrilu 2004  
Na huɗu 100% Afrilu 2007 Babu wani tsawo da aka ba da izini bayan Afrilu 2012

Cigaban hallaka.

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A ƙarshen 2019, an lalata tan 70,545, na 72,304 (97.51%) na ma'aunin sinadarai. Fiye da 57% (miliyan 4.97), na makamai masu guba da kwantena an lalata su.[25]

Jam'iyyun jihohi bakwai sun kammala lalata kayan da suka ayyana: Albania, Indiya, Iraki, Libya, Siriya, Amurka, da kuma wata jam'iyya da ba a bayyana ba (wanda aka yi imanin cewa Koriya ta Kudu ce). Har ila yau, Rasha ta kammala lalata kayan data ayyana, amma guba na Sergei da Yulia Skripal a cikin 2018, da guba na Alexei Navalny a cikin 2020, sun bayyana cewa kasar ta cigaba da shirin makamai masu guba.[26]

Japan da China a watan Oktoba na shekara ta 2010, sun fara lalata makaman sinadarai na zamanin yakin duniya na biyu da Japan ta watsar a kasar Sin ta hanyar raka'a masu lalata makamai masu guba 35,203, (75% na tarin Nanjing). [27][28]

Kasar da kuma haɗi zuwa cikakken labarin Ranar shiga / shiga aiki
 An ayyana ajiyar ajiya (Schedule 1) (ton)
% OPCW-tabbatar da aka lalata (ranar cikakken hallaka)
Lokaci na ƙarshe na hallaka
Albania  29 ga Afrilu 1997 17[29] 100% (Yuli 2007) [29]
Koriya ta Kudu  29 ga Afrilu 1997 3,000–3,500[30] 100% (Yuli 2008)
Indiya  29 ga Afrilu 1997 1,044[31] 100% (Maris 2009) [32]
Libya  5 ga Fabrairu 2004 25[33] 100% (Janairu 2014) [33]
Siriya (gwamnati da aka gudanar)   14 Oktoba 2013 [34] 1,040[35] 100% (Agusta 2014) [35]
Rasha  5 ga Disamba 1997 40,000[36] 100% (Satumba 2017) [37]
Amurka  29 ga Afrilu 1997 33,600 100% (Yuli 2023) [38]
Iraki  12 Fabrairu 2009 Ragowar makamai [39] 100% (Maris 2018) [40]
Japan (a kasar Sin)   29 ga Afrilu 1997 - 66.97% (kamar Satumba 2022) [41] 2027[42]

Kayan Iraqi.

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Kwamitin Tsaro na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya yabada umarnin rushe kayan makaman nukiliya na Iraki a shekarar 1991. A shekara ta 1998, masu binciken UNSCOM sun yi la'akari da lalacewar makamai masu guba 88,000, da aka cika da kuma wadanda ba'a cika su ba, sama da tan 690, na kayan aiki masu guba da masu guba, kimanin tan 4,000, na sinadarai masu guba. [43] Masu binciken UNSCOM sun bar a shekarar 1998.

A shekara ta 2009, kafin Iraki ta shiga CWC, OPCW ta ba da rahoton cewa sojojin Amurka sun lalata kusan tsoffin makamai masu guba 5,000, a cikin fashewar iska tun shekara ta 2004. Wadannan makamai, wadanda aka samar kafin Yakin Gulf na 1991, sun ƙunshi sarin da mustard amma sun lalace sosai da baza'a iya amfani dasu kamar yadda aka nufa ba.

Lokacin da Iraki ta shiga CWC a shekara ta 2009, ta ayyana "bunkers guda biyu tare da cike da makamai masu guba, wasu masu gabatarwa, da kuma tsoffin wuraren samar da makamai na guba guda biyar" a cewar Darakta Janar Rogelio Pfirter na OPCW.[32] An rufe ƙofofin bunker tare da mita 1.5, na ƙarfe mai ƙarfi a cikin 1994, a ƙarƙashin kulawar UNSCOM.[44] Ya zuwa shekara ta 2012, ana cigaba da shirin lalata makaman sinadarai, a fuskar manyan matsaloli.[39][44] A cikin 2014, ISIS ta mallaki shafin.

On 13, March 2018, the Director-General of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), Ambassador Ahmet Üzümcü, congratulated the Government of Iraq on the completion of the destruction of the country's chemical weapons remnants.[40]

Halakar Siriya.

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Bayan Harin sinadarai na Ghouta a watan Agustan 2013, [45] Siriya, wacce aka dade ana zargin tana da makamai masu guba, ta amince dasu a watan Satumbar 2013,kuma ta amince da sanya su a karkashin kulawar kasa da kasa. A ranar 14, ga watan Satumba Siriya ta ajiya kayan aikinta na shiga CWC tare da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya a matsayin mai adanawa kuma ta amince da aikace-aikacen tana wucin gadi har sai shigar da ita ta fara aiki a ranar 14, ga Oktoba.[46][47] Rasha da Amurka sun tsara jadawalin hanzarin lalacewa a ranar 14, ga Satumba, kuma Majalisar Tsaro ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta amince dashi 2118, da kuma OPCW Executive Council Decision EC-M-33/DEC.[48] Lokaci na ƙarshe don hallaka shine rabin farko na shekara ta 2014.[48] Siriya ta ba OPCW lissafin makaman sinadarai kuma tafara hallaka ta a watan Oktoba na shekara ta 2013, makonni 2, kafin ta fara aiki, yayin da take amfani da yarjejeniyar na wucin gadi. Dukkanin kayan da aka ayyana na Category 1 an lalata su a watan Agustan 2014.[35] Koyaya, Harin sinadarai na Khan Shaykhun a watan Afrilu na shekara ta 2017, ya nuna cewa ana iya samun ajiyar da ba'a bayyana ba acikin ƙasar. Wani hari na sinadarai a kan Douma yafaru a ranar 7, ga Afrilu 2018, wanda ya kashe akalla fararen hula 49, tare da raunin daya samu, kuma wanda aka zargi gwamnatin Assad dashi.[49]

Rikici ya tashi a watan Nuwamba na shekara ta 2019, game da binciken da OPCW tayi game da harin makamai masu guba na Douma lokacin da Wikileaks ta buga imel daga wani ma'aikacin OPCW yana cewa rahoto game da wannan lamarin "ya yi kuskuren gaskiyar" kuma ya ƙunshi "ra'ayi mara kyau". Ma'aikacin OPCW yayi tambaya game da binciken rahoton cewa masu binciken OPCW suna da "asshen shaida a wannan lokacin don tantance cewa chlorine, ko wani sinadarin dake dauke da chlorine, mai yiwuwa an sake shi daga cylinders".[50] Ma'aikacin ya yi zargin cewa wannan binciken "yaudara ce sosai kuma batada goyon baya daga gaskiyar" kuma yace zai haɗa nasa ra'ayoyi daban-daban idan an saki wannan rahoton. A ranar 25, ga Nuwamba 2019, Darakta Janar Fernando Arias, a cikin jawabin da yayi wa taron shekara-shekara na OPCW a The Hague, yakare rahoton kungiyar game da abin da yafaru na Douma, yana mai cewa "Yayin da wasu daga cikin waɗannan ra'ayoyi daban-daban ke cigaba da zagayawa a wasu dandalin tattaunawa na jama'a, inaso in sake jaddada cewa ina tsaye a kan mai zaman kansa, ƙwarewar binciken".[51]

Tallafin kudi don hallaka.

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Amurka ce ta bada tallafin kuɗi ga shirye-shiryen lalata kayan ajiyar Albania da Libya. Rasha ta sami tallafi daga kasashe da yawa, gami da Amurka, Ingila, Jamus, Netherlands, Italiya da Kanada; tare da kimanin dala biliyan 2 da aka bayar a shekara ta 2004. Kudin shirin Albania ya kai kimanin dala miliyan 48. Amurka ta kashe dala biliyan 20 kuma ana sa ran zata kashe karin dala biliyan 40.[52]

Sanannun wuraren samar da makamai masu guba.

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Jam'iyyun jihohi goma sha huɗu sun ayyana wuraren samar da makamai masu guba (CWPFs): [53][54]

  • 1 jam'iyyar jihar da ba'a bayyana ba (wanda ake kira "Jami'ar Jiha" a cikin sadarwa ta OPCW; an ce Koriya ta Kudu ce) [55]

A halin yanzu duk wuraren samar da 97, da aka ayyana an kashe su kuma an tabbatar dasu kamar yadda aka lalata (74), ko kuma aka canza su (23), zuwa amfani da farar hula.[25]

Dubi kuma.

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Dokar kasa da kasa.

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  • Ƙungiyar ƙasashe ta Ostiraliya da Hukumar Tarayyar Turai waɗanda ke taimaka wa ƙasashe membobin gano fitarwa wanda ke buƙatar sarrafawa don kada su bada gudummawa ga yaduwar makamai masu guba da na kwayoyin halitta.
  • 1990, Yarjejeniyar Kula da Makamai ta Amurka da Soviet.
  • Ma'auni na gaba ɗaya, ra'ayi a cikin dokar ƙasa da ƙasa wanda ke jagorantar yarjejeniyar ƙasa da ƙasa game da makamai masu guba.
  • Yarjejeniyar Geneva, yarjejeniyar da ta hana amfani da makamai masu guba da kwayoyin halitta tsakanin kasashe masu sanya hannu a cikin rikice-rikicen makamai na kasa da kasa.

Yarjejeniyar Duniya don wasu nau'ikan makamai na hallaka jama'a.

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  • Yarjejeniyar Makamai na Biological (BWC) (ƙungiyoyin jam'iyya).
  • Yarjejeniyar Rashin Yaduwar Nukiliya (NPT) (ƙungiyoyi).
  • Yarjejeniyar kan haramta makaman nukiliya (TPNW) (ƙungiyoyin jam'iyya).

Makamai masu guba.

gyara sashe

 

  • Yaƙin sinadarai.
  • Makamai masu hallaka jama'a.
  • Gas na hawaye.

Ranar tunawa data shafi.

gyara sashe
  • Ranar Tunawa ga Dukkanin Wadanda Yakin Chemical ya shafa.

Manazarta.

gyara sashe
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction". United Nations Treaty Collection. 2018-01-03. Retrieved 2018-01-03.
  2. ↑ "Angola Joins the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons". OPCW. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  3. ↑ "Resolution 2118 (2013)". United Nations documents (in Turanci). United Nations. 27 September 2013. p. 1. Archived from the original (doc) on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2017. Noting that on 14 September 2013, the Syrian Arab Republic deposited with the Secretary-General its instrument of accession to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (Convention) and declared that it shall comply with its stipulations and observe them faithfully and sincerely, applying the Convention provisionally pending its entry into force for the Syrian Arab Republic
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "OPCW by the Numbers". Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-02-09.
  5. ↑ "Third report of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism". 24 August 2016.
  6. ↑ "'White phosphorus not used as chemical weapon in Syria'". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2021-05-22.
  7. ↑ "Text of the 1925 Geneva Protocol". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 2021-02-09.
  8. ↑ Feakes, Daniel (2017). "The Biological Weapons Convention". Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics). 36 (2): 621–628. doi:10.20506/rst.36.2.2679. ISSN 0253-1933. PMID 30152458. S2CID 52100050.
  9. ↑ The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention, THE HARVARD SUSSEX PROGRAM ON CBW ARMAMENT AND ARMS LIMITATION
  10. ↑ NATO. "The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), opens for signature". NATO (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-05-22.
  11. ↑ Herby, Peter (1997-04-30). "Chemical Weapons Convention enters into force - ICRC". International Review of the Red Cross (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-05-22.
  12. ↑ The Intersection of Science and Chemical Disarmament, Beatrice Maneshi and Jonathan E. Forman, Science & Diplomacy, 21 September 2015.
  13. ↑ "Official press release from Nobel prize Committee". Nobel Prize Organization. 11 October 2013. Retrieved 11 October 2013.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Monitoring Chemicals with Possible Chemical Weapons Applications" (PDF). Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 7 December 2014. Fact sheet 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2018.
  15. ↑ "Annex on Chemicals". OPCW.
  16. ↑ "CWC Article II. Definitions and Criteria". Chemical Weapons Convention. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
  17. ↑ "CDC Facts about Phosgene". Retrieved 13 April 2017.
  18. ↑ "Most Traded Scheduled Chemicals 2022". OPCW.
  19. ↑ "Regulated Chemicals | Controlled Substance Lists | Scitegrity". www.scitegrity.com.
  20. ↑ "Chemical Weapons Convention". www.chemlink.com.au.
  21. ↑ "The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) at a Glance | Arms Control Association". www.armscontrol.org.
  22. ↑ "Taiwan fully supports Chemical Weapons Convention". BBC. 27 August 2002. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
  23. ↑ "Chemical Weapons Convention". OPCW (in Turanci). Retrieved 2022-07-19.
  24. ↑ "Russian President Vladimir Putin has announced that Russia is destroying its last supplies of chemical weapons": SOPHIE WILLAIMS, Russia destroys ALL chemical weapons and calls on AMERICA to do the same, Express, 27-9-2017.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "OPCW chief announces destruction of over 96% of chemical weapons in the world". Tass. Tass.
  26. ↑ "Syria, Russia, and the Global Chemical Weapons Crisis". Arms Control Association. Retrieved 2022-03-01.
  27. ↑ "Opening Statement by the Director-General to the Conference of the States Parties at its Sixteenth Session" (PDF). OPCW. 28 November 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
  28. ↑ Executive Council 61, Decision 1. OPCW. 2010
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 "Albania the First Country to Destroy All Its Chemical Weapons". OPCW. 12 July 2007. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  30. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named southkoreadestroy
  31. ↑ "India Country Profile – Chemical". Nuclear Threat Initiative. February 2015. Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Schneidmiller, Chris (27 April 2009). "India Completes Chemical Weapons Disposal; Iraq Declares Stockpile". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Libya Completes Destruction of Its Category 1 Chemical Weapons". OPCW. 4 February 2014.
  34. ↑ Syria applied the convention provisionally from 14 September 2013
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 "OPCW: All Category 1 Chemicals Declared by Syria Now Destroyed". OPCW. 28 August 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
  36. ↑ "Chemical Weapons Destruction". Government of Canada – Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada. 16 October 2012. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  37. ↑ "OPCW Director-General Commends Major Milestone as Russia Completes Destruction of Chemical Weapons Stockpile under OPCW Verification". OPCW. 2017-09-27. Retrieved 2017-09-28.
  38. ↑ "OPCW confirms: All declared chemical weapons stockpiles verified as irreversibly destroyed". OPCW. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Progress report on the preparation of the destruction plan for the al Muthanna bunkers" (PDF). OPCW. 1 May 2012. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 "OPCW Director-General Congratulates Iraq on Complete Destruction of Chemical Weapons Remnants".
  41. ↑ "OPCW Executive Council and Director-General Review Progress on Destruction of Abandoned Chemical Weapons in China". OPCW. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
  42. ↑ "Position Paper on the Chemical Weapons Abandoned by Japan in China". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. 2023-03-24. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
  43. ↑ "Iraq Country Profile – Chemical". Nuclear Threat Initiative. April 2015. Archived from the original on 7 February 2015. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Tucker, Jonathan B. (17 March 2010). "Iraq Faces Major Challenges in Destroying Its Legacy Chemical Weapons". James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies. Archived from the original on 29 March 2010. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
  45. ↑ Borger, Julian; Wintour, Patrick (9 September 2013). "Russia calls on Syria to hand over chemical weapons". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
  46. ↑ "Depositary Norification" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
  47. ↑ "Secretary-General Receives Letter from Syrian Government Informing Him President Has Signed Legislative Decree for Accession to Chemical Weapons Convention". United Nations. 12 September 2013.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 "Decision: Destruction of Syrian Chemical Weapons" (PDF). OPCW. 27 September 2013. Retrieved 28 September 2013.
  49. ↑ Nicole Gaouette (9 April 2018). "Haley says Russia's hands are 'covered in the blood of Syrian children'". CNN.
  50. ↑ Greg Norman (2019). "Syria watchdog accused of making misleading edits in report on chemical weapons attack". Foxnews.com. Retrieved 2019-12-24.
  51. ↑ CBS/AFP (2019). "Chemical weapons watchdog OPCW defends Syria report as whistleblower claims bias". cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2019-12-24.
  52. ↑ "Russia, U.S. face challenge on chemical weapons", Stephanie Nebehay, Reuters, 7 August 2007, accessed 7 August 2007
  53. ↑ "OPCW chief announces destruction of over 96% of chemical weapons in the world". Tass. Tass.
  54. ↑ "Eliminating Chemical Weapons and Chemical Weapons Production Facilities" (PDF). Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. November 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2018. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
  55. ↑ "Confidentiality and verification: the IAEA and OPCW" (PDF). VERTIC. May–June 2004. Retrieved 3 December 2012.

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