Wikipedia

Hakkin ɗan'adam na ruwa da tsaftar muhalli

Hakkin Dan Adam na Ruwa da Tsaftar Muhalli (HRWS), ƙa'ida ce wacce ta yarda cewa tsabtataccen ruwan sha da na muhalli suna da mahimmanci ga rayuwar kowane Dan adama. Majalisar ɗinkin Duniya ta amince dashi a matsayin 'yancin dan adam a ranar 28, ga Yulin shekarar 2010.

Wanke hannu
Tsaftataccen muhalli.

HRWS ta amince da ita a cikin dokar ƙasa da ƙasa ta yarjejeniyoyin Hakkin dan adam, sanarwa da sauran ka'idojin. Da Wasu masu sharhi sun samo 'yancin dan adam na ruwa fiye da kudurin babban taro daga mataki na 11.1 na yarjejeniyar tattalin arziki da al'adu (ICESCR), sun mai da ita dokar ta karkashin dokar ƙasa da ƙasa. Sauran yarjejeniyoyin da suka amince da (HRWS) a fili sun hada da Yarjejeniyar kawar da duk wasu nau'ikan nuna wariya ga mata (CEDAW) da kuma 1989, na 'yancin yara (CRC). Kudurin farko game da HRWS an zartar da shi ne daga babban taron majalisar dinkin duniya da majalisar kare hakkin dan-Adam na Majalisar dinkin duniya a shekarar 2010. Sun yarda cewa akwai Hakkin dan adam na tsaftar da ke da nasaba da Hakkin dan adam na ruwa, tun da rashin tsafta na rage ingancin ruwa a kasashen, saboda haka tattaunawar da ta biyo baya ta cigaba da jaddada haƙƙin biyu tare. A watan Yulin shekarata 2010, Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya) Majalisar ɗinkin Duniya Resolution 64/292, sun amince da 'yancin ɗan Adam na karɓar ingantaccen, mai araha, da tsaftataccen ruwan sha da ayyukan tsafta. [1] A lokacin waccan Babban Taron. ta yarda da hakan don fahimtar jindaɗin rayuwa da duk Hakkokin ɗan'adam. lafiyayye da tsaftataccen ruwan sha da kuma tsabtace muhalli a matsayin hakkin dan adam. [2] Yarda da samun damar tsaftataccen ruwan sha da tsafta a matsayin 'yancin ɗan adam na kyauta a cikin Babban Taron Majalisar (64/292) ya kawo mahimmancin kulawar gwamnati a duk duniya. Cikan rayuwa mai amfani da lafiya zai gudana ta hanyar fahimtar muhimmancin mahimmancin samun ruwa mai tsafta da tsaftar muhalli. [3] [4] [5]

Wani sabon kudurin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da aka yi wa kwaskwarima a shekarar 2015, ya nuna cewa hakkokin biyu sun banbanta da juna to amma sun daidaita.

Kwamitin majalisar dinkin duniya kan 'yancin tattalin Arziki da Al'adu a cikin Babban Sharhi na 15, ne ya fitar da ma'anar' yancin dan adam na ruwa a cikin sharhi 15, wanda aka tsara a shekara ta 2002. Fassara ce ba ta daure ba cewa samun ruwa sharadi ne na jin dadin Hakkin samun daidaituwar rayuwa, ba tare da rarrabuwa dangane da Hakkin babban matakin samun lafiya, don haka Hakkin dan adam. Sanarwar ta ce: "'Yancin mutum na ruwa ya ba kowa damar wadatacce, amintacce, karfin iko, mai isa ga jiki da kuma arha don amfanin kansa da na gida."

(HRWS) ta tilastama gwamnatoci su tabbatar da cewa mutane za su iya jin daɗin inganci, wadatacce, karba, mai sauki, da ruwa mai tsafta da tsaftar muhalli. domin samun rahusa ta amfani da ruwa yayi la’akari da yadda tsadar ruwa ya zama mai hana ruwa gudu har ya bukaci mutum ya sadaukar da kai ga wasu kayayyaki da aiyuka masu mahimmanci. Gaba daya, ka'idar babban yatsa don wadatar ruwa ita ce kada ta wuce 3-5% na kudin shigar iyalai. Samun ruwa yana la'akari da lokacin da aka dauka, na dacewa don isa tushen da hadarin da ke ciki yayin isa ga asalin ruwa. Ruwa dole ne ya kasance mai isa ga kowane dan kasa, ma'ana cewa bai kamata ruwa ya wuce mita dubu 1,000, ko kafa 3,280, ba kuma dole ne ya kasance cikin minti 30. Samuwar ruwa yayi la'akari da cewa shin ana samun wadatar ruwa a wadatacce, abin dogaro da cigaba. Ingancin ruwa yana la'akari da gane ko ruwa mai lafiya ne don amfani, gami da sha ko wasu ayyukan. Don karbar ruwa, dole ne ya kasance yana da kanshi kuma bai kamata ya ƙunshi kowane launi ba.

(ICESCR) tana bukatar kasashe masu rattaba hannu don samun cigaba da girmama duk Hakkokin dan adam, gami da na ruwa da tsaftar muhalli dasu tabbatar da suna tsabbace dukkanin abinda ya dace na ruwa da muhallin su. Yakamata suyi aiki cikin sauri dan inganci don habaka samun dama da haɓaka sabis. dama wasu abubuwan more rayuwa

Yanayin duniya.

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Hukumar Kula da Lafiya ta Duniya ta WHO / UNICEF don samar da Ruwa da tsabtace muhalli ta ba da rahoton cewa mutane kimanin miliyan 663, ba su sami ingantattun samun ruwan sha ba kuma sama da mutane biliyan 2.4, ba su da damar samun ayyukan tsabtace muhalli a shekarar 2015. Samun ruwa mai tsafta babbar matsala ce ga sassan duniya da dama. Kafofin da za a yarda da su sun hada da "hanyoyin sadarwar gida, bututun jama'a, rijiyoyin burtsatse, rijiyoyin da aka tona, kare maɓuɓɓugan ruwa da tattara ruwa. [6] Kodayake kashi 9, cikin 100, na yawan mutanen duniya ba su da ruwa, amma akwai "yankuna da aka jinkirta musamman, kamar Saharar Afirka". Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta kara jaddada cewa "kimanin yara miliyan 1.5 'yan kasa da shekaru biyar ke mutuwa a kowace shekara kuma an rasa ranakun zuwan su makaranta miliyan 443, saboda cututtukan da suka shafi ruwa da tsafta." [7]

Tushen shari'a da amincewa.

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Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan 'yancin tattalin arziki, da al'adu (ICESCR) na shekarar 1966, ta tsara Hakkin tattalin arziki, zamantakewar jama'a, da al'adujin wanda aka samo a cikin Sanarwar Duniya kan' Yancin Dan Adam (UDHR) ta shekarar 1948. Babu dayan wadannan takardu na farko da aka yarda da Hassan dan adam na ruwa da tsafta. Manyan yarjejeniyoyin kare Hakkin bil'adama na kasa da Kasa daga baya, duk da haka, suna da tanaji wadanda suka bayyana Hakkin samun ruwa da tsafta.

  • Yarjejeniyar kawar da dukkan nau'ukan nuna wariya ga mata ta 1979, (CEDAW) tana da Mataki na 14.2, da ke cewa "bangarorin za su dauki duk matakan da suka dace don kawar da nuna wariya ga mata a yankunan karkara don tabbatar da, bisa daidaito tsakanin maza da mata, cewa suna shiga tare da fa'idantar da cigaban karkara kuma, domin zasu tabbatarwa da mata yancin kan su da suke da shi dama wasu mahimman hakkokin su… (h) Don jindadin yanayin rayuwa, musamman dangane da gidaje, tsaftar muhalli, wutar lantarki da samar da ruwa, sufuri da sadarwa. "
  • Yarjejeniyar ta shekarar 1989, game da Hakkin yara (CRC) tana da Mataki na 24, wanda ya ba da cewa "kungiyoyi sun amince da Hakkin yara don jin dadin mafi girman matsayin kiwon lafiya da kuma wuraren kulawa da rashin lafiya da kuma gyara lafiyar…. Bangarorin Jihohi za su nemi cikakken aiwatar da wannan 'yancin kuma, musamman, za su dauki matakan da suka dace ... Don yaki da cututtuka da rashin abinci mai gina jiki, gami da tsarin kula da lafiya na farko, ta hanyar, tsakanin suna iya samar da isasshen abinci mai gina jiki. da tsaftataccen ruwan sha. . "
  • Yarjejeniyar 2006, kan 'yancin nakasassu (CRPD) tana da Mataki na ashirin da takwas 28, (2) (a) wanda ya bukaci "bangarorin su amince da' yancin nakasassu na kariya ta zamantakewa da kuma cin gajiyar wannan 'yancin ba tare da nuna bambanci ba nakasa, kuma za ta dauki matakan da suka dace don kiyayewa da habakar wannan Hakkin, gami da Samar da daidaito tsakanin nakasassu da sauran mutane, da kuma tabbatar da samun dama ga ayyuka masu dacewa da arha, na'urori da sauran taimako don alaƙanta da nakasa bukatun su. "

"Dokar 'Yancin Dan-Adam ta Duniya" - wacce ta kunshi yarjejeniya ta shekarar 1966: Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan' Yancin Dan Adam da Siyasa (ICCPR); 1966: Labari na 11, da na 12, na Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa da Tattalin Arziki, Tattalin Arziki, da Al'adu (ICERS); a shekarar 1948: Mataki na ashirin da biyar 25, na Bayyanar da Duniya game da 'Yancin Dan Adam (UDHR) sun yi rubuce-rubucen canjin' yancin dan adam na ruwa da tsaftar muhalli da sauran Hakkokin da ke da alaka da ruwa da za a amince da su a cikin dokar duniya. [8]

Har ila yau, masanan sun yi kira ga muhimmancin yiwuwar amincewa da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya game da 'yancin bil'adama ga ruwa da tsaftar muhalli a karshen karni na ashirin. Yunkuri biyu na farko don ayyana 'yancin dan adam na ruwa ya fito ne daga farfesa masanin shari'a Stephen McCaffrey na Jami'ar Pacific a 1992 ,[9] da Dokta Peter Gleick a 1999. [10] McCaffrey ya bayyana cewa "Irin wannan Hakkin ana iya yin tunaninsa a matsayin wani bangare na Hakkin abinci ko abinsha, Hakkin lafiya, ko mafi mahimmanci, Hakkin rayuwa. Gleick ya kara da cewa: "samun damar samun ruwa na asali hakki ne na dan'adam a fili kuma a bayyane yake da goyon bayan dokokin kasa da kasa, ayyanawa, da kuma aikin Gwamnati."

Kwamitin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya na 'Yancin Tattalin Arziki, Tsarin Al'adu da Al'adu (CESCR) wanda ke kula da bin ka'idojin ICESCR ya zo ga yanke shawara iri daya kamar yadda wadannan masanan suka yi da Babban Sharhi na 15, a 2002. Ya gano cewa Hakkin ruwa a fakaice bangare ne na Hakkin samun daidaito na rayuwa kuma yana da alaka da Hakkin babban matakin samun lafiya da Hakkin samun isassun gidaje da isasshen abinci. Ya bayyana cewa "'Yancin dan adam na ruwa ya ba kowa damar wadatacce, amintacce, karba, mai wadataccen jiki da kuma araha don amfanin kansa da na gida. Adadin ruwa mai lafiya ya zama dole don hana mutuwa daga rashin ruwa, don rage hadarin kamuwa da cutar da ruwa da kuma samar da amfani, girki, bukatun tsafta na mutum da na gida. ” Countriesasashe da yawa sun amince kuma bisa ka'ida sun yarda da Hakkin ruwa don kasancewa wani bangare na wajibai na yarjejeniyarsu a karkashin ICESCR (misali, Jamus; United Kingdom; Netherlands ) bayan wallafa Babban Magana 15.

Wani tsohon mataki na karamin kwamitin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Karewa da Kare Hakkokin Dan-Adam ya sake daukar wani mataki a 2005, wanda ya ba da ka'idoji don taimaka wa gwamnatoci don cimmawa da mutunta ‘yancin dan Adam na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli. Wadannan ka'idodin sun jagoranci Majalisar Rightsungiyar Kare Hakkin Dan-Adam ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya sanya Catarina de Albuquerque a matsayin kwararriyar masaniya kan batun haƙƙin ɗan adam da ya shafi samun ruwa mai tsafta da tsaftar muhalli a shekarar 2008. Ta rubuta cikakken rahoto a cikin 2009, wanda ya bayyana wajibcin hakkin dan adam na tsaftace muhalli, kuma CESCR ta amsa ta hanyar bayyana cewa ya kamata dukkan jihohi su amince da tsaftar muhalli.

Bayan tattaunawa mai karfi, kasashe 122, a hukumance sun amince da "'Yancin Dan Adam na Ruwa da Tsabtace Muhalli" a Babban Kudurin Majalisar 64/292, a ranar 28, ga Yulin 2010. na gida (tsakanin lita 50, zuwa 100, na ruwa ga kowane mutum a kowace rana), duk wasu na ganin shifa ruwa kawai kayi amfani da shi ne a inda ka tsinci kanka wanda dole ne ya kasance mai aminci, karɓa kuma mai araha (farashin ruwa bai wuce 3% na kudin shiga na gida), da kuma samun karfin jiki (tushen ruwan ya kasance tsakanin mita 1000,na gida kuma lokacin tarawa bai kamata ya wuce minti 30 ba). ” [7] Babban taron ya ayyana cewa tsabtataccen ruwan sha yana da "mahimmanci ga cikakken jin daɗin rayuwa da sauran 'yancin dan adam". A watan Satumban 2010, Kwamitin Kare Hakkin Dan-Adam na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya zartar da wani kuduri wanda ya amince da cewa 'yancin dan Adam na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli na daga cikin ' yancin samun cikakken yanayin rayuwa .

An kara wa'adin Catarina de Albuquerque a matsayin "Kwararren masani kan batun hakkin dan adam da ya shafi samar da tsaftataccen ruwan sha da tsaftar muhalli" an fadada shi kuma an sauya masa suna zuwa "Mai ba da rahoto na Musamman kan 'yancin dan Adam na samun tsaftataccen ruwan sha da tsaftar muhalli" bayan shawarwari a 2010. Ta hanyar rahotonninta ga Hukumar Kare Hakkin Dan-Adam da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, ta ci gaba da bayyana fili da abin da ke tattare da hakkin dan Adam na samun ruwa da tsaftar muhalli. A matsayinta na mai ba da rahoto na Musamman, ta yi magana kan batutuwa kamar: bautar da Jama'a domin hakkim samun ruwa da tsafface muhalli(2010); Kudade don Gano Hakkokin Ruwa da Tsafta (2011); Gudanar da ruwa a cikin Hakkin ruwa da tsafta (2013); da Dorewa da rashin komawa baya a cikin Hakkin haƙƙin ruwa da tsafta (2013). An nada Léo Heller a cikin 2014, don zama na biyu Rapporteur na Musamman kan Hakkin dan adam zuwa tsabtataccen ruwan sha da tsafta.

Resoludurin da ya biyo baya ya faɗaɗa aikin Wakilin Musamman kuma ya bayyana matsayin kowace jiha a cikin girmama waɗannan haƙƙoƙin. A mafi yawan 'yan Majalisar Resolution 7/169, na 2015, da aka kira wani furucin da "The Human Rights zuwa Safe Shan Ruwa da tsabtace muhalli. Ya fahimci bambanci tsakanin haƙƙin ruwa da haƙƙin tsaftace muhalli. An yanke wannan shawarar ne saboda damuwa game da haƙƙin kula da tsafta da aka manta da shi idan aka kwatanta da haƙƙin ruwa.

Fikihun duniya.

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Kotun Tsakanin Amurka da 'Yancin Dan Adam

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An yin la’akari da haƙƙin ruwa a cikin Kotun Tsakiyar Amurka da ke Yancin Dan Adam na kungiyar Asalin Sawhoyamaxa v. Paraguay . [11] Batutuwan sun shafi jihohi ne na rashin amincewa da haƙƙin mallakar communitiesan asalin overan asalin yankin kakanninsu. A cikin 1991, jihar ta cire 'yan asalin garin na Sawhoyamaxa daga kasar wanda hakan ya haifar da asarar hanyoyin samun muhimman ayyukan su, kamar ruwa, abinci, makaranta da kuma ayyukan kiwon lafiya. Wannan ya faɗi ne tsakanin theungiyar Yarjejeniyar Amurka akan 'Yancin Dan Adam ; shigar da hakkin rayuwa. Ruwa yana cikin wannan Hakkin, a zaman wani bangare na samun damar kasa. Kotuna sun bukaci a mayar da filayen, a bayar da diyya, sannan a aiwatar da kayan masarufi da aiyuka, yayin da al'umma ke cikin shirin dawo da filayensu. [12]

Cibiyar Duniya don sasanta rikice-rikicen saka jari.

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Shari'un da ke tafe daga Cibiyar International Settlement of Settlement of Disputes ( ICSID ) sun shafi kwangilolin da aka kafa tsakanin gwamnatoci da hukumomi don kula da hanyoyin ruwa. Ko da yake shari'o'in suna la'akari da tambayoyin saka hannun jari, masu shiri na taka rawa sosai wajen ganin an tabbatar da adalci a kotuna game da filayen mutane.[13] Bayanai na Bankin Duniya sun nuna cewa harkar ba da ruwa ta fara daga 1990s kuma cigaba mai yawa a harkar cinikayyar ya ci gaba zuwa 2000s.

Azurix Corp v. Ajantina.

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Babban sananne na farko game da haƙƙin ruwa a cikin ICSID shine na Azurix Corp v. Ajantina . [14] Rikicin ya kasance tsakanin Jamhuriyar Ajantina da Kamfanin Azurix dangane da sabanin da ya taso daga kwantiragin shekaru 30, tsakanin bangarorin don gudanar da aikin samar da ruwa na larduna daban-daban. An yi la'akari game da haƙƙin ruwa a bayyane yayin lokacin sasantawa don biyan diyya, inda aka gudanar da cewa Azurix na da haƙƙin dawo da adalci kan ƙimar kasuwa na saka hannun jari. Wannan ya kasance maimakon dala miliyan 438.6, da aka nema, yana mai ambaton cewa dan kasuwa mai hankali ba zai iya tsammanin irin wannan dawowar ba, idan aka yi la’akari da iyakokin karin farashin ruwa da ci gaban da za a bukata don tabbatar da kyakkyawan aiki, tsarin ruwa mai tsafta. [15]

Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania.

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Abu na biyu, irin wannan karar da ICSID ta fuskanta shine na Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania . [16] Wannan ya sake kasancewa batun kamfanin ruwa mai zaman kansa a cikin takaddama ta kwantiragi da gwamnati, a wannan karon Jamhuriyar Tanzania ce . Wannan kwangilar ta kasance don aiki da gudanar da tsarin ruwan Dar es Salaam. A watan Mayu 2005, gwamnatin Tanzaniya ta kawo karshen kwangilar da Biwater Gauff saboda zargin rashin cika alkawuran aiki. A watan Yulin 2008, Kotun ta fitar da hukuncin ta game da karar, inda ta bayyana cewa gwamnatin Tanzania ta karya yarjejeniyar da ta kulla da Biwater Gauff. [17] bata bada komai, yarda da cewa damuwar jama'a ita ce mafi mahimmanci a cikin takaddamar.

'Yancin ruwa a cikin dokar gida.

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Ba tare da kasancewar ƙungiyar ƙasa da ƙasa da za ta iya tilasta ta ba, haƙƙin ɗan adam na ruwa ya dogara da ayyukan kotunan ƙasa. [18] Tushen wannan an kafa shi ta hanyar tsarin mulki na haƙƙin tattalin arziki, zamantakewa da al'adu ya da kullum da akeyi (ESCR) ta ɗayan hanyoyi biyu: a zaman "ƙa'idodin umarni" waɗanda suke da maƙasudai kuma galibi ba masu adalci ba ne; ko kamar yadda kariya ta musamman da tilasta aiwatarwa ta kotuna. [19]

Afirka ta Kudu.

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A Afirka ta Kudu, haƙƙin samun ruwa yana cikin tsarin mulki kuma ana aiwatar da shi ta hanyar ƙa'idodi na yau da kullum. Wannan hujja ce ta sauyin sauyi kaɗan na dabara ta biyu ta tsarin mulki wanda ake kira "ƙirar dokokin ƙira". Wannan yana nufin cewa babban ɓangare na abun ciki da aiwatar da haƙƙin an yi ƙa'idar ƙa'idar gida ta yau da kullun tare da wasu tsayuwa na tsarin mulki. [20]

Mazaunan Bon Vista Mansions v. Karamar Hukumar Kudancin Birni.

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Babban sananne na farko wanda kotuna suka aikata shine Mazaunan Bon Vista Mansions v. Karamar Hukumar Kudancin Birni . [21] Mazauna wani rukunin gidaje (Bon Vista Mansions) ne suka kawo karar, biyo bayan yankewar ruwan da karamar hukumar ta yi, sakamakon rashin biyan kudin ruwan Wanda hakan ya sanya su cikin matsi. Kotun ta ce bisa biyayya ga Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Afirka ta Kudu, cewa a tsarin mulki ya kamata dukkan mutane su sami ruwa a matsayin 'yanci. [22]

Arin dalilan yanke shawara ya dogara da Janar Sharhi 12, gan Hakkin Abinci, wanda Kwamitin Majalisar oninkin Duniya kan Economicancin Tattalin Arziki, Zamantakewa da Al'adu ya sanya wa waɗanda ke cikin yarjejeniyar wajibcin kiyayewa da mutunta damar samun wadataccen abinci da ke akwai ta hanyar rashin aiwatarwa duk wani matakan cin amana. [23]

Kotun ta gano cewa dakatar da tushen ruwan da ake da shi, wanda bai bi ka'idojin "adalci da ma'ana" na Dokar Sabis na Ruwan Afirka ta Kudu ba, ya saba wa doka. [24] Yana da mahimmanci a lura cewa yanke shawara ta riga ta kasance kafin a amince da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya game da Shafi na 15. [25]

Mazibuko v. Birnin Johannesburg.

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An ci gaba da tattauna yawan ruwan da za'a bayar a cikin Mazibuko v. Birnin Johannesburg . [26] Shari'ar ta shafi rarraba ruwa ta bututu zuwa Phiri, dayan tsofaffin yankuna na Soweto. Wannan shari'ar ta shafi manyan batutuwa biyu: shin ko manufar garin game da samar da ruwan sha kyauta, kilogram 6, a kowane wata ga kowane mai asusun a cikin garin ya ci karo da Sashe na 27, na Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Afirka ta Kudu ko Sashe na 11, na Ayyukan Ruwa. Dokar. [27] Batu na biyu kasancewar shin ko girka mitatun ruwa da aka riga aka biya ya halatta. An gudanar dashi a babbar kotun cewa dokokin garin basu bada damar sanya mitoci ba sannan kuma sanya su haramtacce ne. Bugu da ari, yayin da mitoci suka dakatar da samar da ruwa zuwa mazauni da zarar an gama samar da ruwan sha kyauta, wannan ana ganin dakatar da samar da ruwan ba bisa ka'ida ba. Kotun ta rike mazauna Phiri ya kamata a samar musu da ruwa na asali na lita 50, kowane mutum a kowace rana. [28] Aikin Cibiyar Nazarin Nazarin Shari'a (CALS) na Jami'ar Witwatersrand a Johannesburg, Afirka ta Kudu da Cibiyar Pacific a Oakland, California sun raba Kyautar Kyautar Kasuwanci ta Kasuwancin 200, ta BENNY don aikin da suka yi a kan wannan shari'ar. [29] Cibiyar Pacific Pacific ta ba da gudummawar shaidar shari'a bisa ga aikin Dr. Peter Gleick wanda ke bayyana Hakkin Dan adam na ruwa da ƙididdigar bukatun dan adam na ruwa. [30]

Manyan wadanda ake kara sun gabatar da karar zuwa Kotun Koli ta Koli ( SCA ) wacce ta tabbatar da cewa an tsara manufofin ruwa na gari ne bisa kuskuren kayan aiki na doka dangane da wajibin garin na samar da mafi karancin saiti a Tsarin Afirka ta Kudu, saboda haka aka ware shi. [31] Kotun ta kuma rike adadin don kasancewar mutum mai mutunci kamar yadda sashi na 27, na kundin tsarin mulki ya nuna a zahiri lita 42, na kowane mutum a kowace rana maimakon lita 50, na mutum daya a kowace rana. Hukumar ta SCA ta bayyana cewa sanya mitocin ruwa ya sabawa doka, amma ta dakatar da umarnin na tsawon shekaru biyu domin ba wa garin damar gyara lamarin. [32]

Batutuwan sun kara zuwa Kotun Kundin Tsarin Mulki, wacce ta ce aikin da kundin tsarin mulki ya kirkira ya bukaci jihar ta dauki matakan doka da sauran matakai a hankali don fahimtar nasarar da aka samu ta samun ruwa, a cikin wadatar da take da shi. da kotun tsarin kuma gudanar da shi ne wani al'amari ga majalisar dokoki da kuma zartarwa ma'aikata na gwamnatin da aiki a cikin allowance na kasafin kudi da kuma cewa ta bincika shirye-shirye ne wani al'amari na mulkin demokra ] en . Saboda haka, mafi karancin abun da doka 3, (b) ta shimfida shine na tsarin mulki, wanda ke baiwa gawarwowi karkata zuwa gaba kuma baya dacewa bai kamata kotu ta yanke hukunci ga nasarar duk wani hakki na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki da gwamnati ta dauka don aiwatarwa ba. [33] Maimakon kotuna sun fi mayar da hankali kan bincikensu kan ko matakan da Gwamnati take bi suna da ma'ana, kuma ko Gwamnati tana bin manufofinta don yin nazari akai. [20] An soki hukuncin saboda yin amfani da "takaitaccen ra'ayi na girmamawa ga shari'a". [34]

Indiya.

gyara sashe

Laifuka biyu da suka fi shahara a Indiya game da Hakkin ruwa suna misalta cewa kodayake ba a kiyaye wannan a bayyane a cikin Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Indiya, kotuna sun fassara ta cewa Hakkin rayuwa ya hada da Hakkin samun lafiya da isasshen ruwa. [35]

Delhi Ruwayar v. Jihar Haryana.

gyara sashe

Anan wata takaddama ta amfani da ruwa ta samo asali saboda gaskiyar cewa jihar Haryana tana amfani da Kogin Jamuna don ban ruwa, yayin da mazaunan Delhi suke buƙatar hakan da nufin sha. Anyi la'akari da cewa amfani da gida ya wuce yadda ake amfani da ruwa kuma kotun ta yanke hukuncin cewa Haryana dole ne ta ba da isasshen ruwa don zuwa Delhi don amfani da amfanin gida. [36]

Subhash Kumar v. Jihar Bihar.

gyara sashe

Har ila yau sananne shine batun Subhash Kumar v. Jihar Bihar, inda aka shigar da kwararar kwararar abubuwa daga kayan wanki zuwa Kogin Bokaro ta hanyar shari'ar bukatun jama'a. Kotuna sun gano cewa Hakkin rai, kamar yadda doka ta 21, ta Tsarin Mulki na Indiya ta tanada, ya hada da Hakkin more ruwa mara kazanta. Shari'ar ta gaza kan hujjojin kuma an gabatar da cewa ba a gabatar da karar ba don wata maslaha ta jama'a ba amma don bukatun mai karar ne don haka ci gaba da shari'ar na iya zama cin zarafin aiki. [36]

'Yancin Duniya na Ranar Ruwa.

gyara sashe

Ruwa yana da mahimmanci ga rayuwar rayayyun halittu gami da mutane. Sabili da haka, samun ruwa mai tsabta da isasshe haƙƙin ɗan adam ne wanda ba za a iya raba shi ba. Saboda haka, Eco Needs Foundation (ENF) yana ganin ya zama dole a amince da haƙƙin ruwa (tare da tabbatar da karancin adadin ruwa) ta hanyar dacewa da aka gabatar da doka. Majalisar Dinkin Duniya tare da alkawurra da dama sun wajabta ta ga dukkan kasashe don tabbatar da raba ruwa daidai tsakanin dukkan 'yan kasa. Dangane da haka, ENF ya fara lura da inganta bikin Ranar 'Yancin Duniya na Ruwa a ranar 20, ga Maris, ranar da Dokta Babasaheb Ambedkar ("mahaifin Indiya ta zamani") ya jagoranci satyagraha na farko a duniya don ruwa a 1927. Ranar Ranar 'Yancin Ruwa ta Duniya ta yi kira da a zartar da doka ta musamman da ta kafa' yancin samun ruwa a duniya. A karkashin jagorancin wanda ya kirkiro Dr Priyanand Agale, ENF ta shirya shirye-shirye iri-iri da dama don tabbatar da 'yancin samun ruwa ga yan kasar ta Indiya. [37]

New Zealand.

gyara sashe

Ba a kariya ga ESCR a bayyane a cikin New Zealand a halin yanzu, ko dai ta Rightsancin Dan Adam ko Dokar 'Yancin Hakkoki, saboda haka ba a kare haƙƙin ruwa a wurin. [38] Lawungiyar Doka ta New Zealand ta kwanan nan ta nuna cewa wannan ƙasar za ta ba da ƙarin haske ga matsayin doka na haƙƙin tattalin arziki, zamantakewa da al'adu. [39]

Amurka.

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A cikin Pilchen v. Birnin Auburn, New York, wata uwa mai suna Diane Pilchen tana zaune a matsayin hayar haya a wani gida da aka killace, wanda mai shi (mai gidan) ya kasa biyan kudin ruwa na wani lokaci. Birnin Auburn ya biya Pilchen bashin bashin mai gida, kuma ta rufe hidimarta na ruwa ba tare da sanarwa ba lokacin da ta kasa biyan wadannan basussukan, wanda hakan yasa gidan ba mai zama. Gari ya la'anci gidan kuma ya tilastawa Pilchen da danta su ƙaura. Pilchen ya sami wakilcin Projectungiyar Dokar Ba da Amfani da Jama'a ta New York (PULP) a cikin karar. Birnin Auburn ya yi kokari ba tare da nasara ba don jayayya cewa ruwa ba Hakkin tsarin mulki ba ne saboda ana iya amfani da ruwan kwalba a maimakon haka, wata hujja da PULP ta yi takara a matsayin wauta. A cikin 2010, Pilchen ta yi nasarar yanke hukunci a inda ta yanke hukuncin cewa rufe ruwan ya keta hakkinta na tsarin mulki, kuma ba za a iya biyan Pilchen da dakatar da samun ruwa ba sakamakon jinkirin biyan wata kudin ruwa.

Tsayayyar Rock Sioux Tribe v. Armyungiyar Injiniyan Sojojin Amurka.

gyara sashe
 
Mutanen da ke zanga-zangar nuna adawa da gina bututun shiga Dakota

A cikin 2016, akwai shahararren shari'ar da aka sani da Tsayayyar Rock Sioux Tribe v. Armyungiyar Injiniyan Sojojin Amurka, inda Sioux Tribe suka ƙalubalanci ginin Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL). Wannan bututun danyen mai ya fadada sama da jihohi hudu, wanda ya hada da farawa a Dakota ta Arewa, sannan ya ratsa ta biyu ta Dakota ta Kudu da Iowa, ya Kare a Illinois . Ajiyar Dutse na Tsaye yana kusa da kan iyakar Arewa da Dakota ta Kudu kuma an gina bututun a tsakanin rabin mil daga gare shi. Tunda an gina bututun a kusa da wurin ajiyar, kabilar sun ji tsoron cewa za a iya lalata mahimmancin tarihi da al'adun tafkin Oahe, duk da cewa bututun ba ya tafiya kai tsaye ta cikin tafkin. Tafkin Oahe yana ba da buƙatun ruwa na asali ga Kabilar Sioux kamar ruwan sha da tsaftar muhalli. Gina bututun mai na nufin akwai yiwuwar fuskantar malalar mai a cikin tafkin Oahe, wanda ya sanya kabilar ta damu. Kabilar Sioux ta kai karar kamfanin na DAPL saboda sun yi amannar cewa kirkirar bututun ya sabawa dokar kare muhalli ta kasa (NEPA) da kuma dokar tarihi ta kasa (NHA). Bayan bayanin 2016, kotu ta kasa zuwa ga ƙarshe, don haka kotun ta yanke shawarar yin ƙarin bayanan. Bayan bayanai 5 da aka gabatar a 2017, da kuma bayani 1 a 2018, kotu ta ba da izinin gina bututun, amma kabilar ta Rock Rock na ci gaba da gwagwarmaya don ganin an cire bututun.

Ostiraliya.

gyara sashe

Hankali a Ostiraliya yana kan haƙƙin ofan Asalin Australiya na ruwa da tsafta. Tarihin mulkin mallaka-ya mamaye mulkin yau da ke tsara tsarin amfani da ruwa ga 'yan asalin Australiya. Akwai yarjejeniyoyin gwamnati da yawa, amma mafi yawansu basu cika yin tasiri sosai ga ikon mallakar toan asalin ƙasar na samun ruwa da tsafta ba A cikin <i id="mwAVo">Mabo v Queensland</i>, 1992, an amince da haƙƙin ativean ativean asali bisa doka a karon farko. 'Yan asalin ƙasar Australiya galibi suna da'awar alaƙar al'adu da ƙasar. Kodayake "al'adu" an san shi a cikin kotu kamar albarkatun ƙasa, al'adun gargajiyar da ruhaniya na Aborigines don shayar da jiki suna da ban tsoro. Yana da kalubale amma ana buƙata don ƙetare darajar al'adunsu da na ruhaniya zuwa fagen shari'a. A yanzu, kusan babu wani ci gaba.

Dokar ruwa ta Ostiraliya tana tsara ruwan ƙasa don 'yan ƙasa waɗanda zasu iya amfani da ruwan ƙasa amma ba za su iya mallaka ba. A cikin kundin tsarin mulki, duk da haka, babu wani kwatanci game da cikin ruwa da kuma na ruwa. Sabili da haka, yanayin haƙƙin haƙƙin ruwa na ruwa / raƙuman ruwa sune farkon ayyukanta na jihar. Gwamnatin Commonwealth ta sami iko kan ruwa ta hanyar aron taimakon alaƙar waje, gami da rantsarfin Ba da Talla, Kasuwanci da Comarfin Kasuwanci.

A 2000, Kotun Tarayya ta kammala yarjejeniyar da ta ba wa masu mallakar ƙasa damar shan ruwa don abubuwan gargajiya. Koyaya, amfani yana iyakance ga mahimmancin al'ada, wanda bai haɗa da ban ruwa ba azaman al'adar gargajiya.

A watan Yunin 2004, CoAC ta kulla wata yarjejeniya tsakanin gwamnatoci kan shirin National Water Initiative (NWI), don inganta amincewa da 'yan asalin yankin na ruwa. Koyaya, NWI bata damu sosai game da rikitaccen tarihin mulkin-mallaka ba, wanda ya haifar da tsari mai kyau na rarraba ruwa. 'Yan asalin Australiya koyaushe suna neman haƙƙin samun ruwa.

Tattaunawa da suka rage.

gyara sashe

Tasirin wuce gona da iri.

gyara sashe
 
Matakin da Habasha ta dauka na cike babbar madatsar ruwa ta Renaissance Dam na iya rage kwararar Nilu da kusan kashi 25% da kuma lalata gonakin Masarawa.
 
Biyo bayan hadewar Kirimiya da Rasha tayi, Ukraine ta toshe mashigar Kirimiya ta Arewa, wacce ta samar da kashi 85% na tsabtataccen ruwan Kirimiya.

Ganin cewa samun ruwa shine tushen damuwa da rikice rikice a Gabas ta Tsakiya, Kudancin Asiya, Gabashin Bahar Rum da sassan Arewacin Amurka tsakanin sauran wurare, wasu kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu (NGOs) da masana suna jayayya cewa haƙƙin samun ruwa kuma yana da yanayin canjin ƙasa ko na waje. Suna jayayya cewa idan aka yi la’akari da cewa samar da ruwa a dabi'ance ya wuce kuma ya tsallaka kan iyakoki, jihohi ma suna da hurumin doka kada su yi aiki ta hanyar da ka iya yin mummunan tasiri ga jin daɗin haƙƙin ɗan adam a wasu jihohin. Amincewa da wannan aikin na doka na iya hana mummunan tsarin tasirin "matsalar ruwa" a duniya (a matsayin barazanar nan gaba da sakamako mara kyau na yawan mutane). [1] Karancin ruwa da kuma yawan amfani da ruwan sha na sanya wannan haƙƙin ya zama mai rikitarwa. Yayin da yawan mutanen duniya ke karuwa cikin sauri, karancin ruwa zai haifar da matsaloli da yawa. Karancin ruwa mai yawa ya kawo batun ko ya kamata a canza ruwa daga wata ƙasa zuwa wata. [40]

Rigimar ruwa tsakanin Indiya da Pakistan.

gyara sashe

Takaddama kan ruwa tsakanin Indiya da Pakistan ta rinjayi ƙarancin ruwa a yankin Asiya ta Kudu . Kasashen biyu suna da wata yarjejeniya wacce aka riga aka sani da Yarjejeniyar Ruwan Indus . An kafa yarjejeniyar ne don takaita rikici tsakanin Indiya da Pakistan dangane da amfani da kogin Indus da kuma samar da ruwa ga kasashen biyu bayan da kasashen suka sami 'yencin kai. Koyaya, rashin jituwa game da shi ya bayyana. A cewar yarjejeniyar, an bar Indiya ta yi amfani da gabar kogin yamma don ban ruwa da kuma dalilan da ba na cuwa-cuwa ba, yayin da Pakistan ke da rinjaye a kan jirgin. Koyaya, Pakistan ta nuna damuwarta cewa ginin Indiya akan kogunan na iya haifar da matsanancin ƙarancin ruwa a Pakistan. Bugu da ƙari, Pakistan ta yi furucin cewa ana iya amfani da madatsun ruwan da Indiya ta gina don dalilai marasa amfani don juya ruwa da kuma kawo cikas ga samar da ruwan Pakistan. Bugu da kari, yarjejeniyar ta shafi kogunan da suka samo asali daga Jammu da Kashmir, wadanda aka cire su daga kula da jikinsu na ruwa.

Kasuwancin ruwa da samarda jiha.

gyara sashe

Akwai takaddama game da wanda, idan kowa, alhakin sa ne don tabbatar da haƙƙin ɗan adam na ruwa da tsafta. Sau da yawa, makarantun tunani guda biyu suna fitowa daga irin wannan maganganun: hakkin jihar ne ta samar da damar samun ruwa mai tsafta ga mutane ta hanyar ba da tallafi da tsabtace muhalli.

Ana ba da kasuwancin ruwa a matsayin amsa ga ƙarancin ƙarancin ruwa wanda ya haifar saboda yawan mutanen duniya sau uku yayin da buƙatar ruwa ya ƙaru sau shida. Ka'idodin muhalli na kasuwa suna amfani da kasuwanni azaman mafita ga matsalolin muhalli kamar lalacewar muhalli da rashin amfani da albarkatu. Magoya bayan masana harkokin tsabtace muhalli sun yi imanin cewa sarrafa ruwa a matsayin fa'idar tattalin arziki ta kamfanoni masu zaman kansu zai kasance mafi inganci fiye da gwamnatocin samar da albarkatun ruwa ga 'yan ƙasa . Irin wadannan masu ikirarin suna ikirarin cewa kudin da gwamnati ke kashewa don bunkasa abubuwan more rayuwa don rabon albarkatun ruwa bai cancanci amfanin kadan na samar da ruwa ba, don haka suke ganin jihar a matsayin mai samar da ruwa mara tasiri. Bugu da ƙari, ana jayayya cewa sake ruwa yana haifar da ci gaba da gudanar da ruwa mai ɗorewa saboda ƙarfin tattalin arziƙi ga masu amfani da su don amfani da ruwa yadda ya kamata.

Abokan adawar sun yi imanin cewa sakamakon ruwa kasancewar haƙƙin ɗan adam ne ban da sa hannun kamfanoni masu zaman kansu kuma yana buƙatar a ba da ruwa ga dukkan mutane saboda yana da mahimmanci ga rayuwa. Samun ruwa a matsayin 'yancin ɗan adam da wasu ƙungiyoyi masu zaman kansu ke amfani da shi a matsayin hanyar yaƙi da yunƙurin sayar da kamfanoni. 'Yancin ɗan adam na samun ruwa "galibi yana kan dalilai biyu: rashin maye gurbin ruwan sha (" mai mahimmanci ga rayuwa "), da kuma gaskiyar cewa wasu haƙƙoƙin ɗan adam da yawa waɗanda aka yarda da su a fili a cikin Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya an tsara su a kan (ɗauka) samun ruwa (misali ' yancin cin abinci ). " [41]

Ra'ayoyin jamaa a matsayin ma'ana don kare haƙƙin al'umma mara ƙarfi.

gyara sashe

Hikimar yalwar jamaa na kara samun karfi, tare da tunanin Anthropocene da kuma amincewa da yan asalin kasar wadanda ke fuskantar mummunar kutse ta hakkinsu zuwa ga kasar tasu mai muhimmanci da ruwa. Ra'ayoyin jamaa hanya ce ta fannoni da yawa, wanda ke amfani da dokoki daban-daban ga rukunin mutane. Akwai yarjejeniya ta ƙasa da ƙasa da yawa, waɗanda ke taƙaita ikon kan haƙƙin igenan asali na ruwa, amincewa da haƙƙin igenan asali, da inganta su. Misali, sun hada da Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan 'Yancin Dan Adam da Siyasa da kasashe 167, suka amince da ita a shekarar 1996, wanda ya kwace ikon kasa wanda ya keta hakkin' yan asalin kasar kuma ya ba da damar cin gashin kai ga 'yan asalin kasar. Determinationudurin kai shine ra'ayin da yakamata mutane su iya sarrafa ikon kansu ta hanyar sarrafa albarkatun ƙasa. Hakanan, a cikin wannan shekarar, Yarjejeniyar Yarjejeniyar Tattalin Arziki, Tattalin Arziki da Al'adu ( ICESCR ) ta amince da ƙaddarar kai tsaye na 'yan asalin ƙasar don amfani da ruwa da ruwa. Taron Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Muhalli da Ci Gaban ya zartar da ajanda 21, wanda ke samun goyon baya daga jihohi 174, tare da kara kare ‘yan asalin daga kutse daga albarkatun kasa. Akwai wasu shirye-shirye da yawa a fagen duniya da na gida. Masana game da jamaa game da dukansu su yi amfani da wadannan ka'idodin ka'idodi daban-daban zuwa iko daya a kan shari'a-da-hali. Akwai iyakoki da yawa akan wannan hanyar ta fannoni da yawa, kodayake. Wasu sharuɗɗa suna amfani da harsunan da ba a sani game da Hakkin, wanda ke nuna shubuha. Sau da yawa wata jiha ke amfani da su don ba da ikon haƙƙin albarkatun ruwa akan takamaiman al'umma. Yawancin jihohi suna sanya doka bin ka'idodin al'adunsu maimakon tsarin kasashe. Hakanan, abun cikin kowane ka'idoji yana da fasali daban, yana haifar da "rashin daidaito" a ƙarƙashin abun ciki ɗaya, ajanda. Shubuha, dokokin al'ada, da rashin jituwa sun zama cikas don aiwatar da ra'ayoyin jamaa da yawa. Duk da wadannan matsalolin, mahangar jamaa ta samar da wasu zabin ga shugabanci don taimakawa marasa karfi na zamantakewar al'umma, gami da yan asalin gari, saboda haka yana da kyau a kara bincike.

Kungiyoyi.

gyara sashe

Kungiyoyin da ke aiki kan Hakkin ruwa da tsaftar kasa an jera su a kasa.

Kungiyoyin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya.

gyara sashe

Hukumomin hadin gwiwar gwamnati.

gyara sashe
  • DFID (Hukumar Hadin gwiwar Burtaniya).
  • GIZ (Kamfanin Tarayyar Jamus don Haɗin Kan Duniya).
  • SDC (Hukumar Ci Gaban da Hadin Kan Switzerland).
  • EPA (Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka).

Kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu da cibiyoyin sadarwa na duniya.

gyara sashe
  • Aiki kan Yunwa (ACF)
  • Jini: Ruwa.
  • Cibiyar Tsaron Ruwa da Hadin gwiwa.
  • Freshwater Action Network (FAN).
  • Tsarkakakken Ruwa ga Duniya.
  • Hakkin DigDeep na Tsarin Ruwa.
  • Cibiyar Pacific.
  • Aikin Ruwa.
  • Cibiyar kasa da kasa tare da aikin Adalcin Ruwa.
  • UUSC.
  • WaterAid.
  • WaterLex (wanda aka daina aiki tun daga shekarar 2020).
  • Zaman LafiyaJam.

Duba kuma

gyara sashe

Bayani

gyara sashe

 

Hanyoyin hadin waje.

gyara sashe

Samfuri:Offline

  1. ↑ Baer, M. 2015. From Water Wars to Water Rights: Implementing the Human Right to Water in Bolivia, Journal of Human Rights, 14:3, 353-376, DOI:10.1080/14754835.2014.988782
  2. ↑ UN (United Nations). 2010. Resolution adopted by the general assembly. 64/292. The human right to water and sanitation. A/RES/64/292. New York: United Nations.
  3. ↑ UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1997. Governance for Sustainable Human Development: A UNDP Policy Document. UNDP, New York, NY, USA. See http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/ (accessed 21/06/2012)
  4. ↑ World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF). 2011. Drinking water: Equity, Satefy and sustainability. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water and Sanitation.
  5. ↑ World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF). 2012. Progress on drinking water and sanitation. 2012 update. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.
  6. ↑ General Assembly Declares Access to Clean Water and Sanitation Is a Human Right." UN News Center. UN, 28 July 2010. Web. 20 Mar. 2014.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Global Issues at the United Nations." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 20 Mar. 2014.
  8. ↑ Gupta, J., Ahlers, R., and Ahmed, L. 2010. The human right to water: Moving towards consensus in a fragmented world. Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, 19(3), 294–305
  9. ↑ [2], McCaffrey, S.C. "A Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications" (1992) V Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, Issue 1, pp.1-24.
  10. ↑ [3], Gleick, P.H. "The Human Right to Water" (1999) Water Policy, Vol. 1, Issue 5, pp. 487-503.
  11. ↑ Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay Archived 2017-03-29 at the Wayback Machine (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 29 March 2006).
  12. ↑ [4] Archived 2014-05-07 at the Wayback Machine, International Network for Economic, Social & Cultural RIghts, Case of Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay.
  13. ↑ [5], Global Public Interest in International Investment Law, Andreas Kulick, 2012 at 303.
  14. ↑ Azurix Corp v. Argentina Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, ICSID Case No ARB/01/12.
  15. ↑ [6] Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, Azurix Corp v Argentina ICSID Case No ARB/01/12 at 149.
  16. ↑ Biwater Gauff (Tanzania) Ltd v. Tanzania Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, ICSID Case No ARB/05/22.
  17. ↑ [7] Archived 2013-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, Business & Human RIghts Resource Centre, Biwater-Tanzania arbitration.
  18. ↑ [8], McGraw, George S. "Defining and Defending the Right to Water and its Minimum Core: Legal Construction and the Role of National Jurisprudence" Loyola University Chicago International Law Review Vol. 8, No. 2, 127-204 (2011) at 137.
  19. ↑ [9] Archived 2018-01-29 at the Wayback Machine, Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" [2013] NZLJ 289 at 297
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 [10] Archived 2018-01-29 at the Wayback Machine, Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" [2013] NZLJ 289 at 298
  21. ↑ Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council Archived 2014-05-07 at the Wayback Machine, High Court of South Africa, Case No. 01/12312.
  22. ↑ [11], South African Constitution, Section 27(1)(a).
  23. ↑ [12], Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 12, Right to adequate food (Twentieth session, 1999), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1999/5 (1999), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 62 (2003).
  24. ↑ [13] Archived 2017-10-31 at the Wayback Machine, South African Water Services Act [No. 108 of 1997] Section 4 (3)
  25. ↑ [14], UN General Comment No. 15
  26. ↑ Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg, (06/13865) [2008] ZAGPHC 491;[2008] All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008)
  27. ↑ [15] Archived 2017-10-31 at the Wayback Machine, South African Water Services Act. [No. 108 of 1997] Section 11
  28. ↑ Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg, (06/13865) [2008] ZAGPHC 491;[2008] All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008) at 181
  29. ↑ [16] Business Ethics Network
  30. ↑ [17] Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, Pacific Institute "Pacific Institute Shares BENNY Award for Efforts in South African Water Rights Decision." (2008), Pacific Institute, Oakland, California
  31. ↑ "South African National Standard 3(b)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2021-07-07.
  32. ↑ [18], Mazibuko and Another v National Director of Public Prosecutions (113/08) [2009] ZASCA 52; 2009 (6) SA 479 (SCA) ; [2009] 3 All SA 548 (SCA) (26 May 2009)
  33. ↑ Mazibuko and Other v. City of Johannesburg and Others (CCt 39/09) [2009] ZACC 28; 2010 (3) BCLR 239 (CC) ; 2010 (4) SA 1 (CC) (8 October 2009)
  34. ↑ Alston & Goodman, International Human Rights, Oxford University Press (2013), Lucy A. Williams, "The Role of Courts In The Quantitative-Implementation of Social and Economic Rights: A Comparative Study", 3 Constitutional Court Review 2010 [South Africa] (2011) 141
  35. ↑ [19], Amy Hardberger "Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Water: Evaluating Water as a Human Right and the Duties and Obligations it Creates" (2005) 4 Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights 331 at 352
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Delhi Water Supply & Sewage v. State Of Haryana & Ors, 1999 SCC(2) 572, JT 1996 (6) 107
  37. ↑ econeeds.org
  38. ↑ Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard, "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" Archived 2018-01-29 at the Wayback Machine, [2013] NZLJ 289 at 299
  39. ↑ [20] Archived 2018-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, New Zealand Law Society Human Rights & Privacy Committee, Submission to the 18th Session of The Human Rights Council, Shadow Report to New Zealnd's 2nd Universal Periodic Review
  40. ↑ McCaffrey, Stephen C. "Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications, A." Geo. Int'l Envtl. L. Rev. 5 (1992): 1.
  41. ↑ Bakker, Karen. "The “Commons” Versus the “Commodity”: Alter‐globalization, Anti‐privatization and the Human Right to Water in the Global South". Antipode 39.3 (2007): 430-455.
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