Wikipedia

Tasirin zamantakewa da muhalli na man dabino

Dabino, an samar da kashi 38% na man kayan lambu a duniya akan kashi 6% na gonakin kayan lambu a duniya. Noman dabino, yawanci amfanin gona na iri ɗaya ana ƙara bincikar illolinsu akan muhalli, gami da asarar iskar carbon-sequestering, ƙasar daji iri-iri. [1] Haka kuma ana nuna damuwa kan kaura da kuma katsewar al’umma da dabbobi saboda noman dabino. [2]

Tasirin zamantakewa da muhalli na man dabino
environmental effects (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na environmental effects (en) Fassara
Facet of (en) Fassara Manja
Hoton tauraron dan adam wanda ke nuna sare daji a cikin Malaysian Borneo don ba da damar dasa dabino mai

Kididdiga

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Itacen dabino na mai (Elaeis guineensis)
 
'Ya'yan itacen dabino na man fetur yana daya daga cikin amfanin gona na farko da aka fi samarwa a duniya.

Kimanin kananan manoma miliyan 1.5 suna shuka amfanin gona a Indonesia, tare da kimanin mutane 500,000 da ke aiki kai tsaye a bangaren a Malaysia, tare da wadanda ke da alaƙa da masana'antu masu alaƙa.[3]

Ya zuwa shekara ta 2006, yawan wuraren da ke cikin gonakin man dabino kusan hekta 11,000,000 (42,000 sq . [4] A shekara ta 2005 kungiyar Malaysian Palm Oil Association, wacce ke da alhakin kusan rabin amfanin gona na duniya, ta kiyasta cewa suna sarrafa kusan rabin biliyan itatuwan dabino masu tsayar da carbon.[3] Bukatar man dabino tana ƙaruwa kuma ana sa ran ya ci gaba da hawa.

Ya zuwa shekara ta 2006, yawan wuraren da ke cikin gonakin man dabino kusan hekta 11,000,000 (42,000 sq . [4] A shekara ta 2005 kungiyar Malaysian Palm Oil Association, wacce ke da alhakin kusan rabin amfanin gona na duniya, ta kiyasta cewa suna sarrafa kusan rabin biliyan itatuwan dabino masu tsayar da carbon.[3] Bukatar man dabino tana ƙaruwa kuma ana sa ran ya ci gaba da hawa. 1967 da 2000 yankin da ake nomawa a Indonesia ya fadada daga kasa da 2,000 square kilometres (770 sq mi) sq zuwa fiye da murabbaʼin kilomita 30,000 (12,000 sq mi). Kashe gandun daji a Indonesia don man dabino (da kuma katako ba bisa ka'ida ba) yana da sauri sosai har wani rahoto na Shirin Muhalli na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (UNEP) na 2007 ya ce za a iya lalata mafi yawan gandun daji na kasar nan da 2022. Adadin asarar gandun daji ya ragu a cikin shekaru goma da suka gabata.

Ana hasashen samar da duniya a cikin rikodin tan 46.9m a cikin 2010, sama da 45.3m a cikin 2009, tare da Indonesia samar da mafi yawan karuwar.

Batutuwan zamantakewa

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Itacen dabino mai amfani ne na tattalin arziki kuma yana ba da tushen aiki.[5] Yana bawa kananan masu mallakar ƙasa damar shiga cikin tattalin arzikin kuɗi kuma sau da yawa yana haifar da ingantaccen ababen more rayuwa na gida da kuma samun damar yin amfani da ayyuka kamar makarantu da wuraren kiwon lafiya. A wasu yankuna, noman dabino mai ya maye gurbin al'adun gargajiya, sau da yawa saboda karfin samun kudin shiga na man dabino.[6][5] Sabunta ayyukan noma ya haifar da batutuwa ciki har da rashin tsaro na abinci. Wannan batun ya samo asali ne daga amfani da ƙasa mai yawa wanda ke haifar da lalacewar ƙasa.[7] A sakamakon haka, ikon mazauna yankin don samar da nasu abinci ya ragu kuma dole ne su nemi abinci a wasu yankuna saboda ba za su iya dogaro da ƙasarsu ba.[8]

Koyaya, a wasu lokuta, an haɓaka ƙasa ta hanyar shuke-shuke na dabino ba tare da tuntuɓar ko diyya ga 'yan asalin ƙasar da ke zaune a ƙasar ba. Wannan ya faru ne a Papua New Guinea, [2] Colombia, [9] da Indonesia. A cikin jihar Sarawak ta Malaysian Borneo, an yi muhawara kan ko akwai matakin tuntuɓar da ya dace tare da al'ummar Long Teran Kanan kafin ci gaban ƙasar gida don gonakin man dabino. Kashe ƙasashen asali ya haifar da rikici tsakanin shuke-shuke da mazauna yankin a kowane ɗayan waɗannan ƙasashe.[2][9][10][11]

A cewar wani rahoto na 2008 da kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu suka yi ciki har da Abokan Duniya, kamfanonin man dabino sun kuma bayar da rahoton cewa sun yi amfani da karfi don samun ƙasa daga al'ummomin 'yan asalin ƙasar Indonesia. Bugu da ƙari, wasu gonakin dabino na mai na Indonesiya sun dogara da ma'aikata da aka shigo da su ko baƙi marasa takardun shaida, wanda ya haifar da damuwa game da yanayin aiki da tasirin zamantakewar waɗannan ayyukan.[12] Batutuwan da suka shafi cin zarafin aikin yara sun kasance babbar damuwa.[13]

Kashe daji

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Rashin mazaunin

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The production of palm oil requires intensive deforestation and this has led to a gradual loss of flora and fauna in the areas where land is cleared for the cultivation of palm oil.[14] Tropical rainforests in countries including Malaysia and Indonesia have been the most ideal countries to have large palm oil plantations as they provide the most suitable climate with ample rainfall and sunshine throughout the year.[15] Between the years 1990 and 2005, the total land in Malaysia used for palm oil cultivation increased by 2.4 million ha and reached 4.2 million ha.[16] During that period, over 1.1 million ha of tropical rainforest was lost. The diverse biodiversity that each rainforest possesses has been diminishing at a rapid rate as fauna is often very fragile and easily affected by deforestation.[17] Animal wildlife has been most affected in areas where significant amounts of land, for commercial palm oil purposes, have been cleared to allow the trees to be planted.[18] Animals have been forced to relocate and have increasingly come into contact with humans as they have started to roam around the surrounding villages in search for food.[19] Some animals have not been able to adapt and relocate elsewhere, leading to their populations decreasing significantly and this has disrupted the symbiotic relationships that the flora and fauna have with their habitat. Deforestation negatively affects biodiversity when forests are converted into plantations and leaves relatively low species richness in primary forests compared to undisturbed forests.[16] One species of particular concern is the critically endangered Bornean orangutan. A notable study in 2018 showed that from 1999 to 2015, over 100,000 orangutans were lost due to unsustainable natural resource exploitation (including the palm oil industry). This number was obtained by tracking the number of nests over this 16 year study period. Results show that nests declined from 22.5 nests per kilometer at the start of the study, to 10.1 nests per kilometer by the end of the study.[20] On the other hand E. guineensis cultivation also helps to push species invasions further, e.g. Anoplolepis gracilipes in southeast Asia.[21] Biodiversity suffers in almost all taxa – Room 1975 and Fayle et al 2010 find so for ants, Danielsen and Heegaard 1995 for bats and primates, Liow et al 2001 for bees, Chung et al 2000 for beetles, Peh et al 2006 for birds, Davis and Philips 2005 for dung beetles, Hassall et al 2006 for isopods, Glor et al 2001 for lizards, Chang et al 1997 for mosquitoes, Chey 2006 for moths, and Bernard et al 2009 for small mammals.[22][23] Almost all taxa also suffer loss of abundance but there are exceptions, species which increase abundance but still lose species richness – Davis and Philips 2005 find so in dung beetles, Hassall et al 2006 in isopods, Glor et al 2001 in lizards and Danielsen and Heegaard 1995 in bats.[22][23] The very unusual exception is bees, which Liow et al 2001 find lose abundance but gain species diversity in oil palm.[22][23]

Rashin lalacewar ƙasa

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Tsarin cire tsire-tsire da ke akwai da kuma dasa itatuwan man dabino yana da lahani ga ingancin ƙasa a ƙasa.[24] Lokacin da aka cire tsire-tsire da ke akwai don buɗe hanyar sabbin tsire-shuke, ƙasa da ke kewaye da shi sau da yawa tana lalacewa.[25] Lokacin da aka dasa itatuwan man dabino, ana amfani da taki da magungunan kashe kwari don tabbatar da saurin girma da lafiyar kowane itace.[26] Ƙananan itatuwan man dabino suna shan ƙarin abubuwan gina jiki masu mahimmanci daga ƙasa wanda ke lalata ingancin ƙasa.[27] Yayin da ƙananan bishiyoyi ke shawo kan abubuwan gina jiki, akwai raguwa a cikin abubuwan gina jiki kuma saboda haka, akwai ƙananan matakan sauran abubuwan gina jiki ga wasu bishiyoyi.[28] Wannan matsala kuma wata sanarwa ce ta karuwar amfani da taki a lokacin Samar da man dabino. Tsakanin itatuwan man dabino da ke kusa da su a cikin shuke-shuke an kuma tsara su don su kasance kusa sosai don inganta amfani da iyakantaccen sararin da ake da shi.[29] Wannan ya kara tasiri ga Ingancin ƙasa saboda yayin da bishiyoyi ke girma, suna buƙatar ƙarin ma'adanai da ruwa daga ƙasa. Saboda kusanci tsakanin bishiyoyi, akwai iyakantaccen wadataccen abinci wanda bishiyoyi zasu iya dogaro da shi wanda ke haifar da ma'aikatan shuka da ke samar da bishiyoyi da yawan taki, magungunan kashe kwari da ruwa.[30] Wannan tsari ya kara cutar da yanayin ƙasa kuma ya sa ya zama ƙalubale ga tsire-tsire da dabbobi da ke akwai su tsira a yankin.[31] Tuma et al 2019 sun sami maye gurbin gandun daji tare da gonakin dabino na mai yana rage yawan nau'in bioturbator, kodayake ba ainihin girman Bioturbation da aka yi ba.[23]

A cikin ƙasashe masu zafi kamar Malaysia da Indonesia, inda yawancin gonakin man dabino suke, [32] akwai ruwan sama na ci gaba da hasken rana a duk rana. Shuke-shuke na man dabino da ke kusa da koguna sun kara tasirin da ke kewaye da al'ummomin yankin. Wannan ya faru ne saboda karuwar amfani da taki da magungunan kashe kwari wanda ya haifar da adadi mafi girma na duka biyun da ruwan sama ke wankewa cikin koguna.[33] Wannan lamari ne saboda koguna suna da mahimmanci ga rayuwar yau da kullun na mazauna ƙauyen.[34] Suna amfani da ruwa daga kogi don amfani da kansu kuma suna amfani da kogi a matsayin tushen abinci, wanda ke sa su kasance masu saukin kamuwa da raguwa daga taki da magungunan kashe kwari.[35] Ruwa mara magani wanda mazauna ƙauyen ke fuskantarsa na iya haifar da mummunar tasirin kiwon lafiya, gami da cututtuka kamar kwalara, E. coli da guba.[36][37]

Lalacewar da aka samu daga lalacewar ƙasa da kuma rashin ingancin ƙasa ya kuma shafi rayuwar yawancin mazauna ƙauyen da ke zaune kusa da waɗannan gonakin man dabino saboda ba za su iya dogara da ƙasarsu kawai don noma abinci da katako ba.[38] Mazauna ƙauyen yanzu suna son neman sabbin hanyoyin abinci da kayan aiki don mafaka. A sakamakon haka, an tilasta wa mazauna ƙauyen su fita da sake komawa dangane da yawan asarar tsire-tsire da dabbobi na yankin.[39] Wannan ya haifar da rikice-rikice na tattalin arziki yayin da gwamnatoci yanzu suna buƙatar sake rarraba albarkatun su don tallafawa waɗannan al'ummomin da aka ware.

Sauran batutuwan muhalli

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Sauran rarrabawar Orangutan na Sumatra a Indonesia
 
Orangutan na Sumatra a Bukit Lawang, Indonesia

A Indonesia, karuwar bukatar man dabino da katako ya haifar da share gandun daji a cikin wuraren shakatawa na Indonesiya. Dangane da rahoton da UNEP ta buga a shekara ta 2007, a lokacin da aka sare daji a wannan lokacin, za a lalata kimanin kashi 98 cikin 100 na gandun daji na Indonesia nan da shekara ta 2022 saboda katako na doka da ba bisa ka'ida ba, gobarar daji da ci gaban gonakin man dabino.[40]

Malaysia, ta biyu mafi girma mai samar da man dabino ta yi alkawarin kiyaye akalla kashi 50 cikin dari na jimlar yankin a matsayin gandun daji. Ya zuwa shekara ta 2010, kashi 58 cikin 100 na Malaysia ya kasance gandun daji.

An soki noman man dabino saboda:

  • Rashin iskar gas. Kashe gandun daji a yankunan wurare masu zafi yana da kimanin kashi 10 cikin 100 na hayakin CO2 da mutum ya yi, kuma yana da tasiri ga canjin yanayi mai haɗari.
  • Halakar mazauni, wanda ke haifar da mutuwar nau'in da ke cikin haɗari (misali Giwayen Sumatra, tiger na Sumatran,[41] Sumatran rhinoceros,[42] da Sumatran orangutan).[40][43][44]
  • Rage bambancin halittu, gami da lalacewar wuraren da ke da bambancin halittukan halittu. [45][44][46]
  • Shuka amfanin gona a ƙasar da ke cikin 'yan asalin ƙasar Sarawak da Kalimantan a tsibirin Borneo da jihar Sabah ta Malaysia.[47]
  • Karin barkewar cututtukan dabbobi yana da alaƙa da sare daji a ƙasashe masu zafi.[48]

Rashin gurɓata ruwa

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A wasu jihohin da aka kafa dabino mai, tilasta aiwatar da dokokin muhalli yana haifar da mamaye shuke-shuke a cikin sassan kogi, [49] kuma sakin gurbataccen abu kamar ruwan da ke cikin man dabino (POME) a cikin muhalli. POME samfurin sharar gida ne wanda aka kirkira a lokacin matakan karshe na hakar man dabino. Tsarin kula da sharar gida na iya zama da wahala sosai kuma mai tsada. A sakamakon haka, hanyar da aka saba amfani da ita ta zubar da ruwa ta haɗa da zubar da shi a cikin tafkunan ruwa da ke kusa.[50] POME ya ƙunshi babban maida hankali ga abubuwan gina jiki kuma yana iya inganta ci gaban algae flooms, wanda ke rage matakan iskar oxygen kuma yana iya haifar da mummunan tasiri ga rayuwar ruwa, kuma saboda haka canza yanayin halittu.[51][52]

An haɓaka ƙarin ayyukan da ke da kyau ga muhalli.[53][54] Daga cikin waɗannan hanyoyin shine maganin anaerobic na POME, wanda zai iya ba da damar samar da biogas (methane) da samar da wutar lantarki, amma yana da matukar wahala a kula da yanayin girma mafi kyau ga kwayoyin anaerobic waɗanda ke rushe acetate zuwa methane (da farko Methanosaeta concilii, nau'in Archaea).

Rashin iskar gas

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Lalacewar turba, wani bangare saboda samar da man dabino, an yi iƙirarin taimakawa ga lalacewar muhalli, gami da kashi huɗu cikin dari na hayakin gas na duniya da kashi takwas cikin dari na duk hayakin duniya da ke haifar a kowace shekara ta hanyar ƙone man fetur, [55] saboda share manyan wuraren gandun daji don shuke-shuke na dabino. Yawancin gandun daji na Indonesiya da Malaysia suna kwance a saman turɓaya da ke adana adadi mai yawa na carbon. Cire gandun daji da kuma zubar da ruwa don samar da hanya ga shuke-shuke ya saki wannan carbon. Wani binciken ya nuna cewa juyin juya halin peatlands yana ba da gudummawa tsakanin kashi 16.6 da 27.9 na jimlar hayakin gas daga Malaysia da Indonesia sun haɗu.[56] Tsarin zubar da turɓaya da ci gaban ƙananan dabino yana haifar da kashi 50 cikin dari mafi girma a cikin iskar gas idan aka kwatanta da tsiro masu girma.[56] Wannan damuwa ce mai girma tsakanin masu ilimin muhalli da masu kula da muhalli yayin da ake canza wasu wuraren da ke cikin wurare masu zafi zuwa shuke-shuke saboda karancin ƙasa, don biyan buƙatun man dabino.[57]

Masu bincike suna neman yiwuwar, mafi kyawun muhalli, mafita da hanyoyin taimakawa halin da ake ciki kuma sun ba da shawarar cewa idan an kiyaye isasshen ƙasa kuma akwai manyan wuraren ajiyar gandun daji na farko, tasirin masana'antar man dabino bazai da tasiri sosai ga namun daji da bambancin halittu ba. Kungiyoyin muhalli kamar Greenpeace, Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, da Amnesty International suma suna shiga cikin bayar da shawarar hana amfanin dabino mai ba da gudummawa da kamfanonin da ke sayen waɗannan fitarwa.

Kungiyoyin muhalli kamar Greenpeace suna da'awar cewa wannan sare daji yana samar da hayaki da yawa fiye da cire man fetur.[58][59] Greenpeace ta gano wuraren da ke cike da turɓaya na Indonesiya - gandun daji na musamman na wurare masu zafi wanda za'a iya ƙone ƙasa mai yawa don fitar da hayakin carbon - wanda ake lalatawa don buɗe hanyar shuke-shuke na man dabino. Greenpeace ta yi jayayya cewa tuddai suna wakiltar manyan sinks na carbon, kuma suna da'awar lalacewar ta riga ta kai kashi huɗu cikin dari na fitar da CO2 na shekara-shekara. Koyaya, a cewar Laboratory na Binciken Peat na Tropical, aƙalla ma'auni ɗaya ya nuna cewa gonakin dabino na mai suna carbon sinks saboda dabino na man fetur suna canza carbon dioxide zuwa iskar oxygen kamar yadda wasu bishiyoyi ke yi, kuma, kamar yadda aka ruwaito a cikin Sadarwar Kasa ta Biyu ga Yarjejeniyar Tsarin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Canjin Yanayi, gonakin dabinin mai suna ba da gudummawa ga nutsewar carbon na Malaysia.  [ana buƙatar hujja][<span title="where does it say that? A page number would be helpful (February 2013)">citation needed</span>]

Greenpeace ta yi rikodin lalacewar peatland a lardin Riau na Indonesia a tsibirin Sumatra, gida ga kashi 25 cikin 100 na gonakin man dabino na Indonesia. Greenpeace ta yi iƙirarin cewa wannan zai haifar da mummunar sakamako ga wuraren da ke cikin Riau, waɗanda ci gaban masana'antu ya riga ya lalata su kuma suna adana tan biliyan 14.6 na carbon, kusan iskar gas mai guba ta shekara guda.[60]

An kira masu kula da muhalli da masu kiyayewa da su hada kai da kamfanonin man dabino don siyan ƙananan yankuna na gonar dabino da ke akwai, don haka za su iya amfani da ribar don ƙirƙirar wuraren ajiyar yanayi masu zaman kansu.[61] An ba da shawarar cewa wannan dabarar ce mai amfani fiye da tsarin rikici na yanzu wanda ke barazana ga rayuwar miliyoyin ƙananan masu mallakar.[61][62]

Haze

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Rikicin gurɓata iska na 2005 a Kuala Lumpur. Hawan kudu maso gabashin Asiya lamari ne mai maimaitawa wanda ke da alaƙa da share ƙasa don man dabino da itace.

Haze, wani nau'i na gurɓataccen iska, babban lamari ne mai maimaitawa a duk faɗin kudu maso gabashin Asiya, wani bangare yana da alaƙa da ƙone gandun daji da gandun daji don share ƙasa don shuke-shuke na man dabino.[63]

Bambance-bambance na kasa

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Shuka mai na dabino a Indonesia

Indonesia da Malaysia

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A cikin ƙasashe biyu da ke da alhakin sama da 80% na samar da dabino a duniya, Indonesia da Malaysia, ƙananan masu mallakar suna da kashi 35-40% na jimlar yankin dabino da aka dasa da kuma kusan kashi 33% na fitarwa. A wani wuri, kamar yadda yake a kasashen Yammacin Afirka waɗanda ke samar da galibi don kasuwannin cikin gida da na yanki, ƙananan masu mallakar suna samar da har zuwa 90% na amfanin gona na shekara-shekara.[64]

A sakamakon jajircewar Malaysia na riƙe gandun daji na halitta a kan akalla kashi 50% na ƙasar, ci gaban sabbin gonakin man dabino ya ragu a cikin 'yan shekarun nan. A cewar Ministan Masana'antu da Kasuwanci na Malaysia Bernard Dompok, fadada man dabino ba zai yiwu ba, saboda haka manoman Malaysia yanzu suna mai da hankali kan kara samarwa ba tare da fadada ba.

A watan Janairun shekara ta 2008, Shugaba na Majalisar Man Fuskar Malaya ya rubuta wasika ga Jaridar Wall Street inda ya bayyana cewa Malaysia ta san bukatar bin masana'antar man dabino mai dorewa.[65] Tun daga wannan lokacin gwamnatin Malaysia, tare da kamfanonin man dabino, sun kara samar da man dabino mai ɗorewa (CSPO). [66] Malaysia ta amince da Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil a matsayin mafi girma mai samar da CSPO, samar da kashi 50% na wadatar duniya, kuma yana da lissafin kashi 40% na masu shuka CSPO a duk duniya. Indonesia tana samar da kashi 35% na CSPO na duniya.

A Indonesia, Ƙungiyar 'Yan asalin ƙasar (AMAN) a ƙarƙashin jagorancin Mina Susana Setra ta yi yaƙi don manufofi da ke samun daidaituwa tsakanin bukatun tattalin arziki da haƙƙin' yan asalin ƙasar. Kashi 99% na lasisin man dabino a cikin ƙasar sun shafi ƙasar da 'yan asalin ƙasar ke zaune. A cikin 2012, AMAN ta jagoranci ƙungiyar bayar da shawarwari wacce ta lashe shari'ar Kotun Kundin Tsarin Mulki da ta amince da haƙƙin ƙasa na al'ada; [67] duk da haka, aiwatar da shirye-shiryen da ke kare haƙƙin 'yan asalin ƙasar, muhalli da masu haɓakawa sun kasa samun nasara sai dai a cikin iyakantaccen shari'o'i.

manazarta

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  1. ↑ "Stanford researchers show oil palm plantations are clearing carbon-rich tropical forests in Borneo".
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "Oro Landowners' Declaration on Large-Scale Commercial Extraction of Natural Resources and the Expansion of Oil Palm Nucleus Estates". Forest Peoples Programme. Archived from the original on 2014-05-24. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "MPOA and sustainable palm oil" (PDF). Malaysian Palm Oil Association. 2005.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Palm oil plantations already estimated at occupying 11 million hectares". WWF (Panda.org). Archived from the original on 2007-10-14. Retrieved 2007-09-29.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Norwana, Awang Ali Bema Dayang; Kunjappan, Rejani (2011). "The local impacts of oil palm expansion in Malaysia" (PDF). cifor.org. Center for International Forestry Research. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
  6. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Budidarsono
  7. ↑ Guillaume, Thomas; Holtkamp, Anna Mareike; Damris, Muhammad; Brümmer, Bernhard; Kuzyakov, Yakov (2016-09-16). "Soil degradation in oil palm and rubber plantations under land resource scarcity". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment (in Turanci). 232: 110–118. Bibcode:2016AgEE..232..110G. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2016.07.002. ISSN 0167-8809.
  8. ↑ Rist, Lucy; Feintrenie, Laurène; Levang, Patrice (2010-04-01). "The livelihood impacts of oil palm: smallholders in Indonesia" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation (in Turanci). 19 (4): 1009–1024. Bibcode:2010BiCon..19.1009R. doi:10.1007/s10531-010-9815-z. ISSN 1572-9710. S2CID 23735927. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Palm oil cultivation for biofuel blocks return of displaced people in Colombia" (PDF). iDMC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-11-27. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  10. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named FPP
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Colchester
  12. ↑ "Ghosts on our Own Land: Indonesian Oil Palm Smallholders and the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm" (PDF). Forest Peoples Programme. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-07-12. Retrieved 2012-10-20.
  13. ↑ "'We gave our sweat and blood': Palm oil workers cite child labour, slavery and rape". Global News (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-02-16.
  14. ↑ Wilcove, David S.; Koh, Lian Pin (2010-04-01). "Addressing the threats to biodiversity from oil-palm agriculture". Biodiversity and Conservation (in Turanci). 19 (4): 999–1007. Bibcode:2010BiCon..19..999W. doi:10.1007/s10531-009-9760-x. ISSN 1572-9710. S2CID 10728423.
  15. ↑ Chow, C. S. "The effects of season, rainfall and cycle on oil palm yield in Malaysia". www.cabdirect.org. Retrieved 2020-03-16.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Fitzherbert, Emily B.; Struebig, Matthew J.; Morel, Alexandra; Danielsen, Finn; Brühl, Carsten A.; Donald, Paul F.; Phalan, Ben (2008-10-01). "How will oil palm expansion affect biodiversity?". Trends in Ecology & Evolution (in Turanci). 23 (10): 538–545. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2008.06.012. ISSN 0169-5347. PMID 18775582.
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  26. ↑ Moser, Stefan; Mußhoff, Oliver (2016). "Ex-ante Evaluation of Policy Measures: Effects of Reward and Punishment for Fertiliser Reduction in Palm Oil Production". Journal of Agricultural Economics (in Turanci). 67 (1): 84–104. doi:10.1111/1477-9552.12114. ISSN 1477-9552. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  27. ↑ Nkongho, Raymond N.; Feintrenie, Laurène; Levang, Patrice (2014-03-01). "Strengths and weaknesses of the smallholder oil palm sector in Cameroon". OCL (in Turanci). 21 (2): D208. doi:10.1051/ocl/2013043. ISSN 2257-6614.
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  29. ↑ McCarthy, John F. (2012-11-01). "Certifying in Contested Spaces: private regulation in Indonesian forestry and palm oil". Third World Quarterly. 33 (10): 1871–1888. doi:10.1080/01436597.2012.729721. ISSN 0143-6597. S2CID 155041814.
  30. ↑ Foong, Steve Z. Y.; Goh, Carmen K. M.; Supramaniam, Christina V.; Ng, Denny K. S. (2019-01-01). "Input–output optimisation model for sustainable oil palm plantation development". Sustainable Production and Consumption (in Turanci). 17: 31–46. doi:10.1016/j.spc.2018.08.010. ISSN 2352-5509. S2CID 134054489.
  31. ↑ Tarmizi, A M; Mohd Tayeb, D. "Nutrient Demands Of Tenera Oil Palm Planted On Inland Soils Of Malaysia". Journal of Oil Palm Research. 18: 204–209. S2CID 73527301.
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  35. ↑ Dayang Norwana, A. a. B.; Kanjappan, R.; Chin, M.; Schoneveld, G. C.; Potter, L.; Andriani, R. (2011). "The local impacts of oil palm expansion in Malaysia; An assessment based on a case study in Sabah State" (in Turanci). doi:10.17528/cifor/003771. Retrieved 2020-03-16. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  36. ↑ Walter, A; Wagai, Samuel; Arama, Peter; Ogur, Joseph (2011). "Antibacterial activity of Moringa oleifera and Moringa stenopetala methanol and n-hexane seed extracts on bacteria implicated in water borne diseases". African Journal of Microbiology Research. S2CID 53500935.
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  55. ↑ Once a Dream, Palm Oil May Be an Eco-Nightmare The New York Times, January 31, 2007
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  59. ↑ "Palm oil: Cooking the Climate". Greenpeace. 2007-11-08. Archived from the original on 2007-11-10. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
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  62. ↑ NGOs should use palm oil to drive conservation Rhett A. Butler, Mongabay, 29 August 2007
  63. ↑ Mayberry, Kate. "Southeast Asia struggles to tackle haze despite long-term dangers". www.aljazeera.com (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-11-29.
  64. ↑ Vermeulen and Goad. 2006. Towards better practice in smallholder palm oil production. IIED
  65. ↑ Malaysian Palm Trees Are Fine and Green, Too. January 25, 2008. OP-ED letter from the CEO of the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, WSJ online
  66. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Sarif
  67. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Eshelman (2014)
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