Wikipedia

Haƙƙoƙin ɗan'adam

(an turo daga Hakkin ɗan'adam)

Hakkokin ɗan'adam, kyawawan ɗabi'u ne ko hanyoyin tafiyar da rayuwa na yau da kullum.[1] Shi ɗan'adam na da wasu kafaffun ɗabi'u, sannan kuma akan basu kariya ako da yaushe a matsayin haƙƙoƙin doka dana ɗabi'a a ƙarƙashin dokokin ƙasa da na duniya.[2] Ana ɗaukansu a matsayin haƙƙokin da ba'a iya tauye su,[3] tsararrun haƙƙoƙi ne "wanda kowanne mutum ke da haƙƙi akansu, badan komai ba sai don kasancewar ɗan'adam"[4] kuma "kowanne mutum yana da haƙƙi akansu",[5] ba tare da duba ga shekarun sa, jinsin sa, ƙasar sa ta asali, wurin zama, harshe, addini, ƙabila, ko kuma kowane irin babbanci ba.[3] Ana iya wanzar da su a ko ina a kuma ko da yaushe a zaman haƙƙi na duniya baki daya,[1] kuma yana daga ciki haƙƙoƙin ɗan'adam rashin nuna bambanci akan cewa dukkannin mutane daya suke.[3] Ana ɗaukar su a matsayin tausayin juna da kuma dokoki na shari'a[6] da kuma sanya wajabci akan kowane mutum da ya daraja wadannan Haƙƙoƙin na sauran mutane,[1][3] kuma ya amince gabaki daya akan ba za'a kore waɗannan haƙƙoƙi ba face idan akwai wasu dalilai na tsari.[7]

Hakkokin Yan-adam
convention (en) Fassara, harkar zamantakewa da type of value (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na Haƙƙoƙi da convention (en) Fassara
Bangare na international law (en) Fassara
Foundational text (en) Fassara Gamayyar Sanarwa na Yancin Dan'adam
Hashtag (en) Fassara StandUp4HumanRights
Babban tsarin rubutu Yarjejeniyar Turai kan Haƙƙin Dan Adam
Gudanarwan Mai kare ƴancin ɗan'adam
Personal library at (en) Fassara University of Minnesota Libraries (en) Fassara
WordLift URL (en) Fassara http://data.thenextweb.com/tnw/entity/human_rights
Bikin isar da fayilolin da aka gyara daga Faculty of Natural Sciences and Museum of the UNLP
Deltan Dallagnol tare da Nicole Barrett, 2017 Allard Prize
Magna Carta ko "Babban yarjejeniya" ɗaya daga cikin kundin duniya na farko dake ɗauke da umurni daga cikakken shugaban kasa zuwa ga alummarsa dasu daraja hakkokin doka
Haƙƙoƙin ɗan'adam

Koyarwar Haƙƙin ɗan'adam yayi fice a tsakanin Ƙungiyoyin shari'a na ƙasa da ƙasa. Matakai da Jihohi da kuma Ƙungiyoyin da ba na gwamnati ba (NGO's) ne suka kafa tushen dokokin al'umma a duk fadin duniya. Ra'ayoyin Haƙƙin ɗan'adam sun bayyana cewa idan Ƙungiyoyin al'umma zasu zauna su tattauna akan matakan zaman lafiya ga al'ummomin duniya, to wannan za'a iya cewa ya zamo Ƙarshen kyawawan dabi'u na gama gari, Waɗannan su ne haƙƙokin ɗan'adam". Mayan hujjojin kare Haƙƙin ɗan'adam sun saɓawa koyarwa da dama na addinai, kuma suna jayayya akan abubuwan da dokokin suka ƙunsa, tsarinta da kuma sharuddanta har zuwa yau. Anyi jayayya sosai akan asalin ma'anar kalmar haƙƙi, kuma ya zamo darasi na jayayya wanda baya karewa,[8] a yayinda anyi amanna akan cewa haƙƙokin ɗan'adam sun ƙunshi Haƙƙoƙi da dama, kamar adalci a shari'a, kare ɗan'adam daga zama bawa, da kuma yancin faɗin albarkacin baki,[9] da kuma haƙƙokin samun ingantaccen Ilimi, akwai saɓani akan wanne daga cikin Waɗannan haƙƙoƙi ne zasu zamo daga cikin jigon haƙƙokin ɗan'adam ;[1] wasu manazarta sun ayyana cewa ya kamata aƙalla haƙƙin ɗan'adam ya zamo ƙaramin doka don hana mummunan cin zarafi, a yayinda wasu kuma suke gani cewa shine kololuwar sharaɗi.[1][10] Har ila yau, anyi jayayya cewa haƙƙin ɗan'adam doka ne daga Ubangiji; duk da cewa anyi suka ga wannan ra'ayi sosai.[11]

Muhimman ra'ayoyin da suka janyo wannan cece-kuce na Haƙƙin ɗan'adam

Tarihi

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U.S. Declaration of Independence Contiƙintal Congress ce ta tabbatar a ranar 4 July 1776

Manufar hakkin dan-adam ta wanzu na tsawon kaɗan'adam da, duk da cewa mutane da dama suna la'akari da Haƙƙin dan-adam na duka duniya kamar yadda mutanen zamanin nan ke yi a yau.[12][13][14]

Hujja akan hakkin dan-adam mafi tsufa itace Cyrus Cylindeɗan'adam w samo asali tun daga ƙarni naƙƙin ɗan'adam ɗauke da hakkoki kamar baƙƙoƙautar da bayi, Haƙƙin bauta a addinin da ka ga dama da kuma Haƙƙin daidaito a tsakanin launin fata.[15]

Majagaban tattaunawa na gaskiya a, an Haƙƙoƙin dan-adam yana cikin manufar hakkokin asali wanda , haɗi Da a matsayinr da akayi aokokin asali al'adun tsakiyar zamuna. Waɗannan al'adu sun tasirantu sosai daga rubuce-rubuceƙƙokin ɗan'adam a manazartan farko farko na addinin Kiristanci, St Hilary of Poitiers, St. Ambrose da kuma St. Augustine.[16] Augustine na daga cikin mutanƙina farkmin da suka fara tantance ingancin dokokin dan-aɗan'adama yayi ƙoƙarin bayyana iyakoki akan wasu hakkoki da dokoki na asali dangane da hikima da zurfin tunaƙƙin ɗan'adam n cewa mutane su gindaya dokokin da ka, kuma idan mutane zasu rikƙ bin dokokin da ba na adalci ba.[17]

Wadannan al'adu na tsakiyar zamunai yayi fice a lokacin Ilimin falsafa na Turai (Enlightenment). A wannan dalilin ne, tushen Haƙƙoƙin dan-adam ta fara daga tsakiyar karshen karni na 20.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Magna Carta wata yarjejeniya ce ta Ingila wacce aka isar a shekarar 1215, wacce tayi tasiri akan bunƙasa Dokokin yau da kullum, da sauran dumbin takaddu na kundin tsarin mulki akan hakkokin dan-adam, irinsu Dokar Hakkoki 1689, Kundin tsarin mulkin Amurka na shekara ta 1789, da kuma Dokar Hakkoki na Amurka na shekarar 1791.[18]

Masanin falsafa na ƙarni na 17 dan ƙasar Ingila John Locke ya tattauna akan Haƙƙin dan adam na asali a cikin ayyukansa, kuma ya bayyana su a matsayin "rayuwa", "'yanci", da "gidaje (muhalli), kuma yayi jayayya akan cewa irin wadannan muhimman Haƙƙoƙi bai kamata a barsu ga masu hanu da shuni ba. A Burtaniya acikin shekara ta 1689, Dokokin Haƙƙoƙi na Ingila da kuma Mallakar hakkoki na 1689, na kasar Scotland duka sunyi yunkurin kore wasu ayyukan gwamnati wanda basu bisa adalci.[19] Muhimman juyin juya hali guda biyu sun faru a cikin karni na 18, a kasar Amurka a shekara ta (1776) da kuma Faransa a cikin shekara ta (1789), wanda hakan ya janyo Sanarwar Dokar 'Yancin Kai na Amurka da kuma Sanarwa kan hakkokin dan adam da 'yan ƙasa na ƙasar Faransa bi da bi, dukkanninsu kuma sun kunshi wani nau'in hakkokin dan-adam. Bugu da kari, Sanarwar Dokar Hakkoki na Virginia na shekara ta 1776, ya ayyana wasu dumbin muhimman Haƙƙoƙin 'yan ƙasa da 'yancin 'yan kasa a cikin doka.

Mun riqi wannan gaskiyar da ta zama hujja ga kowa da kowa, cewa dukkannin mutane an halicce su daidai, cewa ubangijinsu ya halicce su da wasu hakkoki wanda ba'a iya koresu, cewa daga cikinsu akwai rayuwa, 'yanci da kuma neman farin ciki a duniya.

— Sanarwar Dokar 'Yancin Kai na Amurka, 1776

1800 zuwa Yakin Duniya na I

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Bayanin Hakkokin dan adam da na jama'a Majalisar Dokoki ta kasar Faransa ne ta zartar a ranar, 26 Augusta 1789

Masana falsafa irinsu Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, da kuma Hegel sun faɗaɗa jigon Universality a tsakanin karni na 18 da na 19. A cikin shekara ta 1831, William Lloyd Garrison ya rubuta acikin wata jarida mai suna The Liberator cewa yana so ya sanya masu karanta labaransa a cikin wani "babban al'amari na hakkokin dan-adam",[20] to watakila ta haka ne aka fara amfani da kalmar Hakkokin dan'adam a tsakanin maganan Paine Hakkokin dan'adam (The Rights of Man) da kuma wallafar Garrison. A cikin shekara ta 1849, wani dan zamanin Henry David Thoreau yayi rubutu akan Hakkokin dan'adam a cikin rubutunsa mai suna Civil Disobedience wanda daga bisani yayi tasiri akan Haƙƙoƙin dan-adam da kuma manazarta. Kotun Kolin David Davis na kasar Amurka, acikin bayanansa na 1867, akan Ex parte Milligan, ya rubuta kamar haka: "Don kare doka, ana tabbatar da hakkokin dan-adam; idan aka cire waɗannan Haƙƙoƙi to suna a hannun azzaluman shugabanni, ko kuma a cikin rudanin rikitattun mutane".[21]

Ƙungiyoyi da dama sun sami damar cimma nasaorin zamantakewa masu muhimmanci a cikin karni na 20 da sunan hakkin dan-adam. A yammacin Turai da Arewacin Amurka, Kungiyoyin kwadago sun janyo dokar da ya bai wa ma'aikata daman yajin aiki, kirkirar ƙa'idojin lokutan aiki, da kuma haramta ko kuma tsara Kwadago ga yara. Kamfe na Hakkokin Mata yayi sanadiyyar samarwa mata 'yancin kada kuri'a. Yakoki akan 'yancin kasashe yayi sanadiyyar korar Turawan mulkin mallaka daga kasashe da dama. Daya daga cikin jagoranci mafi tasiri shine na Mahatma Gandhi akan gwagwarmayar 'yancin Indiya. Gwagwarmayoyi na ƙananan addinan da basu da galihu da wariyar launin fata sun samu nasarori da dama a yankuna daban daban na duniya, daga cikinsu akwai gwagwarmayar kare hakin 'yan kasa, da kuma na kusa-kusan nan bayyana siyasa, wanda ya jibanci mata da sauran marasa galihu a Amurka.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Ƙirƙirar Ƙungiyar Agaji Ta Red Cross Ta Duniya, Dokar Lieber na 1864, da kuma Yarjejeniyar Geneva na farko a 1864, yayi sanadiyyar kirkirar Dokokin 'yan-Adam ta duniya, wanda aka kara bunkasa ta bayan yakin duniya na biyu.

Tsakanin Yakin Duniya ta Ɗaya da Yakin Duniya ta Biyu

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An kirkiri League of Nations a shekarar 1919, a wajen muhawara akan yarjejeniyar Versailles bayan an kammala Yakin Duniya na I. Manufofin ƙungiyar sune janye dakarun sojoji, magance yaki ta hanyar hadin gwiwa ta tsaro, daidaita sabani a tsakanin ƙasashe ta hanyar sasanci, diflomasiyya da kuma inganta jin dadin rayuwa a duk faɗin duniya. Tana dauke da yarjejeniya akan bunkasa hakkoki da dama wanda daga bisani aka sanya su acikin Zartarwa akan Haƙƙoƙin Dan-Adam na Duniya (Universal Declaration of Human Rights).

League of Nations tana da kudiri na goyon bayan da yawa daga cikin ƙasashen da Turawan Yammacin Turai suka mulka a yayin mika yanci daga mulkin malka zuwa 'yancin kai.

Ƙungiyar Kwadago ta kasa da kasa a matsayinta na hukuma a ƙarƙashin League of Nation, sannan a yanzu Majalisar dinkin Duniya ta na da kudirin bunkasawa da kare wasu hakkoki wanda daga baya aka sanya su a cikin Zartarwa akan Haƙƙoƙin Dan-Adam na Duniya (UDHR).

muhimmin kudirin Kungiyar kwadago ta kasa da kasa (ILO) a yau shine bunkasa damammaki ga mata da maza a wajen samun ayyuka masu armashi, a cikin yanayi na 'yanci, adalci, tsaro da kuma martabar dan-Adam.

— Rahoto daga Darekta Jenar na Taron kwadago ta Ƙasa da Ƙasa, kashi na 87

Bayan Yakin Duniya ta Biyu

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"ba yarjejeniya bace... [Anan gaba, tana] iya zamowa Magna Carta na kasa da kasa."[22] Eleanor Roosevelt dauke da Shella akan Hakkokin Dan-Adam a shekarar 1949.

Shella akan Hakkokin Dan-Adam na Duniya (UDHR) ta kasance zartarwa ce da ba'a tankwara wanda Majalisar Dinkin Duniya na gaba daya ta dabbaka a shekarar 1948,[23] wani bangare don martani akan abubuwan da suka faru a Yakin Duniya na Biyu. UDHR ta bukaci membobin kasashe da su bunkasa Haƙƙoƙi da dama na dan-Adam, ma'aikata, tattalin arziƙi da kuma hakkoki na zamantakewa, da kuma tabbatar da wadannan hakkoki a cikin wani bangare na "tushen 'yanci, adalci da kuma zaman lafiya a duniya". Wannan yarjejeniya itace yunkurin shari'a na farko a tsakanin ƙasashen duniya don iyakance halayen ƙasashe da kuma tabbatar da cewa sunyi hidima ga 'yan kasashensu ta hanyar bin koyarwar Rights-duty duality.

Samfuri:Omission duba da muhimmancin martaba da kuma na dai-daito da hakkokin da ba'a iya kore su da gabaki daya iyalin mutum shine tushen 'yanci, adalci da zaman lafiya a duniya

— Gabatarwa daga Shella akan Haƙƙoƙin Dan-Adam na Duniya, 1948

Kwamitin Haƙƙoƙin Dan-Adam ne suka tsara UDHR, tare da Eleanor Roosevelt a matsayin chiyaman, wanda ya fara tattaunawa akan Dokar Hakkokin Dan-Adam na Kasa da Kasa a shekarar 1947. Membobin kwamitin ba kai tsaye suka amince da dokokin da ke karkashin wadannan Haƙƙoƙi ba, da kuma ta yaya za'a iya tilasta dokokin. Kwamitin ta cigaba da tsara UDHR da sauran yarjejeniyoyi, amma cikin sauri UDHR ta zamo mafi muhammanci.[24] Farfesan shari'a dan kasar Kanada John Humprey da kuma lauyan kasar Faransa René Cassin su ke da alhakin mafi yawancin bincike na kasa da kasa da kuma tsara takaddu bi da bi, a yayin da mukaloli akan zartarwar sun ta'allake ne akan gabaki daya dokokin da ke cikin tsokacin. Cassin ne ya tsara takardar don ta kunshi muhimman dokoki na daraja, 'yanci, dai-daito da kuma ƙaunar juna a mukalu biyu na farkonta, sannan sai kuma hakkoki da suka shafe mutane; hakkokin mutane a tsakaninsu da sauran mutane da kumma tsakaninsu da ƙungiyoyi; Haƙƙoƙin addini, na jama'a da kuma na siyasa; da kuma hakkokin tattalin arziki, zamantakewa da kuma al'adu. Sauran kasidu ukun, dangane da Cassin, sun kunshi hakkoki da suka shafi iyakoki, dokokin ayyuka da kuma na zamantakewa da na siyasa da kuma yadda za'a wanzar da su.[25] Humphrey da Cassin sun ayyana cewa a tilasta wadannan dokoki na UDHR a shari'ance ta wasu hanyoyi, kamar yadda aka nuna a mujalladi na uku a cikin kasidar.[25]

A yayinda take da muhimmanci, idan baza'a tilasta wa mutum ya nema taimako ba, a matsayin itace kadai mafita, da ya zama dan tawaye dangane da wani zalunci da musgunawa, cewa ya kamata doka ta kare hakkokin dan-Adam.

— Gabatarwa daga Shella akan Hakkokin Dan-Adam, 1948

Kwamitin kwararru na ƙasa da kasa ne sukayi bincike kuma suka rubuta wasu sassa daga cikin dokokin UDHR, wanda ya haɗa da wakilai daga kowacce nahiya, sannan kuma daga dukkanin muhimman addinai, da kuma koyarwa daga tattaunawa da shuwagabanni irinsu Mahatma Gandhi.[26] Shigar da dokokin mutane da na siyasa da kuma na tattalin arziki, zamantakewa da al'adu,[24][27] sun kasance a tsammanin cewa hakkokin dan-Adam ba kasafai ake gane su ba sannan kuma hakkoki daban daban da aka lissafo suna da alaka da juna. Duk da cewa babu wanda ya musunta waɗannan ka'idoji daga cikin mambobin kasashe a wannan lokacin, (amma an zartar da wadannan dokoki ne cikin hadin kai amma banda kungiyoyi irinsu Soviet Bloc, Apartheid na Kudancin Afirka,da kuma Saudi Arebiya, wadannan dokoki daga baya sun fuskanci kalubale da dama.[27]

Dangane da lamarin "Duniya baki daya", dokar bata shafi nuna bambanci da wariyar launin fata na cikin ƙasashen ba.[28] Henry J. Richardson III ya musanta:[29]

Dukkanin manyan gwamnatoci na wancan lokacin a lokacin tsara dokokin U.N. da Shellar Haƙƙoƙin Duniya baki daya sunyi iya kokarinsu wajen tabbatar da cewa, ta kowacce hanya da aka sani na dokokin cikin gida da na kasa da kasa, cewa wadannan dokoki sun ta'allaka ne kadai ga ƙasa da ƙasa sannan kuma bata da wani doka na wajibci akan dokoki na cikin gida a tsakanin kasashe. Kowa da kowa ya lura cewa nuna bambancinsu akan masu karamin karfi don cin karensu ba babbaka akan yadda suke iya tilasta dokoki dangane da wadannan dokoki da zasu yadu zuwa wurare da dama zai samar da matsin lamba wanda zai tayar da hankula a siyasance.

Fara yakin Cold War jim kadan bayan kirkirar UDHR ya haifar da rarrabuwa na adawa akan shigar da hakkokin zamantakewa da na tattalin arziki da kuma hakkokin 'yan kasa da na siyasa a cikin dokokin. Ƙasashen jari hujja sun bada muhimmanci sosai akan hakkokin 'yan kasa da na siyasa (kamar 'yancin cudanya da kuma fadan albarkacin baki), amma basu da niyyar wanzar da hakkokin tattalin arziki da na zamantakewa (kamar Haƙƙin yin aiki da kuma shiga kungiyoyi). Kasashen gurguzanci kuwa sun bada muhimmanci sosai akan hakkokin tatttalin arziki da na zamantakewa, kuma sunyi jayayya sosai akan dalilin shigar dasu cikin dokokin.[30]

A dalilin rarrabuwar da akayi, akan wadanne hakkoki suka kamata a shigar, sannan kuma wasu kasashe sun ki amincewa kuma sun goge wasu daga cikin dokokin, sannan kuma duk da cewa wasu daga cikin membobi irinsu Soviet bloc da sauran kasashe masu tasowa sunki amincewa da wasu hakkoki a zaman Yarjejeniyar hadin kai, an raba hakkokin da ke cikin UDHR zuwa alkawarori guda biyu, inda aka bar wasu kasashe da su wanzar da wasu dokokin sannan kuma suyi watsi da wasu. Duk da cewa hakan ya bada damar kirkirar wadannan dokoki, amma ya tauye dokar cewa dukkanin hakkoki suna da alaka da juna, wanda wannan shine zuciyar UDHR ga wasu masana.[31][32]

Duk da cewa UDHR sansanci ne wanda ba'a iya tankwarawa, a yanzu ana daukar ta a matsayin wani bangare na tushen Dokoki al'adu na kasa da kasa, wanda sashin shari'a na gwamnatocin kasashe ka iya hakayowa a yayin yanke wani hukunci.[33]

Yarjejeniyoyi akan hakkin dan-Adam

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A cikin shekarar 1966, Majalisar Dinkin Duniya tayi amfani da International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) da kuma International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) a tsakaninsu, inda ta sanya hakkokin a karkashin UDHR akan kowacce kasa. Duk da haka, an tilasta su ne kawai a shekarar 1976, a lokacin da kasashe da dama suka sanya hannu a yarjejeniyar (duk da cewa an cimma nasarar ICCPR, alkawarin da ya kunshi hakkokin tattalin arziki da na zamantakewa, kasar Amurka ta sanya hannu ne kadai a yarjejeiyar ICCPR a shekarar 1992. ICESCR ta sanya kungiyar kasashe 155 don suyi aiki a wajen tabbatar da samar da hakkokin tattalin arziki da na zamantakewa ga mutane.

Akwai sauran dumbin yarjejeniyoyi da aka gudanar a tsakanin kasashe. An fi saninsu da kayan aikin hakkokin dan-Adam - human rights instruments. Daga cikin wadanda sukayi fice sun hada da:

Salon Bunkasa Dokokin

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Dakarun Soja

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Alhakin bada kariya wani shiri ne na kasashen da ke karkashin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da su shiga tsakani kuma su kare mutane daga azzalumai. An ayyana ta a matsayin adalci a dalilin shiga tsakani da sojoji sukayi na kwanan nan. Misalin wannan shiga tsakani da akai ta suka shine Shigan Sojoji kasar Libiya a shekara ta 2011 a Yakin Basasan Farko na Libiya wanda dakarun NATO da Qatar sukayi, wanda kudurin kare kasar daga zalunci ya dauki wani fasali na musamman na tumbuke gwamnatin da ake hari.[35][36]

Tattalin arziki

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Akwai hukunci akan tattalin arziki ga duk mutanenda da ko kasar da ta saba dokar hakkin dan-adam. An soke wannan hukunci ta fuskar yadda ake hukuntar da gabaki daya mutanen kasa ta fuskar tattalin arziki don a dankwafar da mutuncin gwamnatin wannan kasa a idan 'yan kasar.[37][38] Har wayau anyi jayayya da cewa, hukunci akan wanda suka sabawa gwamnatin manyan kasashe na karawa gwamnatin wadannan manyan kasa ta fuskar tattalin arzikin cikin gida a yayinda wannan gwamnati zata kirkiri hanyoyi da dama na samun kudade fiye da kasashen da suke suka ko adawa, wadanda za'a kara dankwafarwa.[39]

Hadarin take hakkokin dan-adam na karuwa tare da karuwar talauci a tsakanin mutane. Ana daukar 'ya'ya mata daga iyalai masu karamin karfi a kasashe masu rauni na tattalin arziki a matsayin nauyi acikin iyalin a dalilin haka ana aurar da mata da kananun shekarun da nufin cewa za'a ciyar dasu a karkashin iyalan da ke da arziki.[40]

.Manazarta

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 James Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, 13 December 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Human Rights, Retrieved 14 August 2014
  2. ↑ Nickel 2010
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Majalisar dinkin duniya, Ofishin babban kwamishina na Hakkokin dan'adam, What are human rights?, Retrieved 14 August 2014
  4. ↑ Sepúlveda et al. 2004, p. 3"Archived copy". Archived from the original on March 28, 2012. Retrieved November 8, 2011.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  5. ↑ Burns H. Weston, 20 March 2014, Encyclopædia Britannica, human rights, Retrieved 14 August 2014
  6. ↑ Gary J. Bass (book reviewer), Samuel Moyn (author of book being reviewed), 20 October 2010, The New Republic, The Old New Thing, Retrieved 14 August 2014
  7. ↑ The United Nations, Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights, What are human rights? Archived 19 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 August 2014
  8. ↑ Shaw (2008), p. 265.
  9. ↑ Macmillan Dictionary, human rights – definitionArchived 19 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 August 2014, "the rights that everyone should have in a society, including the right to express opinions about the government or to have protection from harm"
  10. ↑ International technical guidance on sexuality education: an evidence-informed approach(PDF). Paris: UNESCO. 2018. p. 16. ISBN 978-9231002595. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
  11. ↑ Niose, David (6 October 2016). "The Danger of Claiming That Rights Come From God". Psychology Today. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  12. ↑ Sutto, Marco (2019). "Human Rights Evolution, A Brief History". The CoESPU Magazine. 2019 (3): 18–21. doi:10.32048/Coespumagazine3.19.3. Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
  13. ↑ "A Short History of Human Rights". Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
  14. ↑ "International Human Rights Law: A Short History". Archived from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
  15. ↑ "History of Natural Law & Basic Freedoms, Cyrus the Great". Archived from the original on 20 March 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  16. ↑ Carlyle, A. J. (1903). A History of Medieval Political Theory in the West. 1. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 83. Archived from the original on 2016-06-08.
  17. ↑ "Augustine on Law and Order — Lawexplores.com".
  18. ↑ Hazeltine, H. D. (1917). "The Influence of Magna Carta on American Constitutional Development". In Malden, Henry Elliot (ed.). Magna Carta commemoration essays. BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1116447477.
  19. ↑ "Britain's unwritten constitution". British Library. Archived from the original on 8 September 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2015. The key landmark is the Bill of Rights (1689), which established the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown ... providing for the regular meeting of Parliament, free elections to the Commons, free speech in parliamentary debates, and some basic human rights, most famously freedom from 'cruel or unusual punishment.
  20. ↑ Mayer (2000), p. 110.
  21. ↑ "Ex Parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2, 119. (full text)" (PDF). December 1866. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 28 December 2007.
  22. ↑ Eleanor Roosevelt: Address to the United Nations General Assembly Archived 22 ga Yuni, 2017 at the Wayback Machine 10 December 1948 in Paris, France
  23. ↑ (A/RES/217, 10 December 1948 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris)
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Glendon, Mary Ann (July 2004). "The Rule of Law in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Northwestern University Journal of International Human Rights. 2 (5). Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2008.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Glendon, Mary Ann (July 2004). "The Rule of Law in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Northwestern University Journal of International Human Rights. 2 (5). Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2008.
  26. ↑ Glendon, Mary Ann (2001). A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Random House of Canada Ltd. ISBN 0375506926.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Ball & Gready (2007), p. 34.
  28. ↑ Paul Gordon Lauren, "First Principles of Racial Equality: History and the Politics and Diplomacy of Human Rights Provisions in the United Nations Charter," Human Rights Quarterly 5 (1983): 1–26.
  29. ↑ Henry J. Richardson III, "Black People, Technocracy, and Legal Process: Thoughts, Fears, and Goals," in Public Policy for the Black Community,ed. by Marguerite Ross Barnett and James A. Hefner (Port Washington, N.Y.: Alfred Publishing, 1976), p, 179.
  30. ↑ Ball & Gready (2007), p. 35.
  31. ↑ Ball & Gready (2007), p. 35.
  32. ↑ Littman, David G. (19 January 2003). "Human Rights and Human Wrongs". Archived from the original on 11 January 2008. Retrieved 7 January 2008. The principal aim of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was to create a framework for a universal code based on mutual consent. The early years of the United Nations were overshadowed by the division between the Western and Communist conceptions of human rights, although neither side called into question the concept of universality. The debate centered on which "rights" – political, economic, and social – were to be included among the Universal Instruments
  33. ↑ Ball & Gready (2007), p. [page needed].
  34. ↑ "OHCHR | Convention against Torture". www.ohchr.org. Archived from the original on 27 March 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  35. ↑ Akbarzadeh, Shahram; Saba, Arif (2020). "UN paralysis over Syria: the responsibility to protect or regime change?". International Politics. 56 (4): 536–550. doi:10.1057/s41311-018-0149-x. S2CID 150004890.
  36. ↑ Emerson, Michael (1 December 2011). "The responsibility to protect and regime change" (PDF). Centre for European Policy Studies. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 June 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
  37. ↑ Habibzadeh, Farrokh (2018). "Economic sanction: a weapon of mass destruction". The Lancet (in Turanci). 392 (10150): 816–817. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31944-5. PMID 30139528. S2CID 52074513.
  38. ↑ Mueller, John; Mueller, Karl (1999). "Sanctions of mass destruction". Foreign Affairs (in Turanci). 78 (3): 43–53. doi:10.2307/20049279. JSTOR 20049279.
  39. ↑ Nesrine Malik (3 July 2018). "Sanctions Against Sudan Didn't Harm an Oppressive Government — They Helped It". Archived from the original on 5 May 2022. Retrieved 5 May 2022.
  40. ↑ "Ethiopian drought leading to dramatic increase in child marriage Unicef warns". The Guardian (in Turanci). 2022-04-30. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 2022-05-11.


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