Wikipedia

'Yancin Dan Adam a Habasha

A cewar rahoton haƙƙin ɗan adam na Ma'aikatar Harkokin Wajen Amurka na 2022, akwai "mahimman batutuwan haƙƙin ɗan adam" a Habasha. Baya ga kashe-kashen ba bisa ka'ida ba da kuma shari'o'in " bacewar tilastawa ", sauran batutuwan da suka shafi hakkin dan adam a Habasha sun hada da kame ba bisa ka'ida ba, tauye hakkin 'yan jarida da kame ba bisa ka'ida ba, amfani da yara kanana sojoji, da sauransu. [1]

Rahotanni na take hakkin bil'adama a cikin kasar an shigar da su a gaban gwamnatin tarayya ta Habasha, da kungiyoyin 'yan bindiga daban-daban da kuma mayakan sa kai na yanki; ciki har da kungiyar 'yantar da jama'ar yankin Tigray . [2]

Tarihi

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A zamanin Sarkin sarakuna Haile Selassie, an fara tsara dokoki cikin tsari, wanda ya ba da damar kafa kundin tsarin mulkin Habasha guda biyu na farko: Kundin Tsarin Mulki na 1931 da Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Masarautar Habasha na 1955, da kuma Lambobi shida waɗanda suka kasance masu mahimmanci ga Dokokin Habasha a yau. [3] Duk da haka, duka Tsarin Mulki na 1931 da Kundin Tsarin Mulki na 1955 sun tsara ikon Sarkin sarakuna, tare da barin irin haƙƙoƙin da 'yancin da ya kamata talakawansa su mallaka.

Bayan hambarar da Selassie a shekara ta 1974, Manjo Mengistu Haile Marium ya kafa mulkin kama-karya na soja wanda ya sa abokan hamayyarsa na siyasa ga "kamewa da tsarewa ba bisa ka'ida ba, azabtarwa, tilasta bacewar da kuma yanke hukuncin kisa." [4] Bayan shekaru biyar, Mengistu ya fara shirin mika mulki na Dergi zuwa gwamnatin farar hula, inda ya kafa hukumar kafa jam'iyyar ma'aikata a shekarar 1979 kuma ya ayyana jamhuriyar gurguzu, karkashin jagorancin jam'iyyar Workers Party of Ethiopia, a 1984. [5] 1] [6] A shekara ta 1987, Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Jamhuriyyar Dimokaradiyyar Jama'ar Habasha (PDRE constitution) ya rusa mulkin dergi a hukumance, ya kuma kaddamar da jam'iyyar People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE), jam'iyyar Marxist-Lenin mai ra'ayin mazan jiya wacce sojoji da tsoffin membobin Dergi suka mamaye. . Kundin tsarin mulkin PDRE ya zayyana hakkoki da yanci na asali, ciki har da ‘yancin fadin albarkacin baki, yada labarai, da taro; 'yanci na lamiri da addini; da hakkin wanda ake tuhuma da kama. [7] Saboda akidar gurguzu ta PDRE, kundin tsarin mulkin PDRE ya jaddada yancin zamantakewa da al'adu, [8] kamar 'yancin samun ilimi kyauta; hakkin kula da lafiya; da 'yancin shiga kimiyya, fasaha, da fasaha. [9] Duk da haka, haƙƙoƙin da aka kafa a cikin Kundin Tsarin Mulki na PDRE, gwamnatin mulkin soja ta Mengistu ta tauye su. [4]

Gwamnatin mulkin soja ta Mengistu ta fuskanci tsattsauran adawa na tsawon shekaru goma sha hudu na mulkinta. [10] 'Yan adawa da suka hada da jam'iyyar People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP) da ke adawa da Marxist–Leninist, da kuma jam'iyyar People's Revolutionary Democratic Front mai hedkwata a yankin Tigrai, kawancen dakarun dimokaradiyyar kabilanci, sun jagoranci turjiya da makami ga mulkin dergi a rikicin da aka fi sani da Habasha. Yakin Basasa . [4] [11] [12] Dergi ya yi amfani da tashin hankali, wanda aka saba aiwatar da shi ta hanyar yakin neman zabe, don murkushe ‘yan adawa. [13] A cikin 1976, Dergi ya haifar da Qey Shibir (Jan Ta'addanci na Habasha), wani mummunan yakin siyasa na danniya da EPRP. Karkashin jagorancin Mengistu, Dergi ba wai kawai ya dogara ga jami'an jiha ba ne wajen aiwatar da Qey Shibir; Har ila yau, ta yi amfani da makamai masu linzami da magoya bayan farar hula tare da ba da "masu juyin-juya hali na gaskiya da masu kishin kasa" hukunci, wanda ya kara mayar da tashin hankalin jihar. [14] Qey Shibir ya yi sanadiyar mutuwar mutane 50,000. [15] Bugu da kari, da dama daga cikin wadanda rikicin Qey Shibir ya rutsa da su, an fuskanci azabtarwa, gudun hijira, da cin zarafi. [14] Qey Shibir da yunwar 1983-1985, al'amarin da wani bangare ya haifar kuma ya kara dagula manufofin gwamnati, ya kara goyon bayan jama'a ga jam'iyyar EPRDF, wadda ta yi nasarar hambarar da gwamnatin Mengistu a 1991. [14]

A shekarar 1991 ne jam'iyyar ta EPRDF ta karbi mulki tare da yin alkawarin samar da wani shiri na rikon kwarya wanda zai gyara wadanda gwamnatin baya ta yi wa illa, inganta dimokuradiyya, da kuma tabbatar da kare hakkin bil'adama da 'yan tsiraru. [16] [17] Yarjejeniya ta wucin gadi, wadda aka amince da ita a lokacin taron bayan yakin a 1991, ta kafa gwamnatin rikon kwarya a hukumance. [17] Fitowa daga sanarwar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya game da Haƙƙin Dan Adam, Mataki na 1 na Yarjejeniya Ta Ya tabbatar da haƙƙin asali da yancin ɗan adam, musamman 'yancin faɗar albarkacin baki, ƙungiyoyi, da taro; 'yanci na lamiri; da 'yancin shiga siyasa "ba tare da iyakancewa" da kungiyar jam'iyya ba, "idan har yin amfani da irin wannan haƙƙin ba ya keta haƙƙin wasu." [18] Yarjejeniya ta kuma yi magana game da yanayin dangantakar ƙabilanci a Habasha. Mataki na 17 na Yarjejeniyar ya bayyana cewa , gwamnatin rikon kwarya ta kasar Habasha (TGE) za ta yi kokarin kawar da rikice-rikicen kabilanci yayin da ta jagoranci kasar wajen samun cikakken dimokuradiyya. [18] Mataki na 2 ya shelanta hakkin kabilu a kasar Habasha, wadanda a hukumance ake kira kasashe ko kasashe. [19] Daga cikin haƙƙoƙin da aka bai wa dukkanin “al’ummai, al’ummai, da al’ummar Habasha” har da ‘yancin yancin kai, gami da ‘yancin ballewa.

A shekarar 1994, jam'iyyar EPRDF ta amince da kundin tsarin mulkin kasar Habasha, wanda ya fara aiki bayan babban zaben shekarar 1995 . [4] A bin tsarin da Kundin Tsarin Mulki ya shimfida, tsarin mulkin 1995 ya kafa tsarin tarayya na kabilanci. [16] [19] Kamar Yarjejeniya, Kundin Tsarin Mulki na 1995 ya fito ne daga Yarjejeniyar Haƙƙin Bil Adama ta Duniya yayin da kuma ke kafa kariyar haƙƙin ƙungiya. Shafukan 14 zuwa 44 na Kundin Tsarin Mulki na 1995 sun tsara “hakkoki na asali da ’yanci,” tare da Labari na 14 zuwa 28 da suka shafi “haƙƙin ɗan adam” da kuma sharuɗɗa 29 zuwa 44 da suka kafa “haƙƙin dimokuradiyya.” [20]

A watan Afrilun 2018, Abiy Ahmed ya zama Firayim Minista kuma ya yi alkawarin yin gyare-gyare da yawa ta fuskar kare hakkin dan Adam. A cikin 2018, gwamnatinsa ta saki dubban fursunonin siyasa, ta dage dokar ta-baci, ta kawo karshen yakin Eritriya da Habasha, ya zabi sabuwar majalisar ministocin da rabin ministocin mata ne, sannan ta nada wata alkali mace, Birtukan Mideksa, a matsayin shugabar hukumar. Hukumar Zaben Kasar Habasha (NEBE).

Sanarwar Yaki da Ta'addanci

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An gabatar da shelar yaki da ta'addanci ta Habasha a shekarar 2009. [21] Manyan tanade-tanade na Dokar Yaki da Ta'addanci sun ba wa hukumomi damar aikata laifin ' yancin fadin albarkacin baki . Amnesty International ta yi imanin cewa akalla 'yan jarida 108 da 'yan adawa an kama su a shekarar 2011 da farko saboda sukar da suka yi na cikin lumana da gwamnati. Adadin da ke da hannu a wannan kame-kamen da aka yi, na wakiltar mafi girman murkushe ‘yancin fadin albarkacin baki da aka gani cikin shekaru da dama a Habasha. [22]

Daga Maris 2011 zuwa Disamba 2011 akalla 'yan jam'iyyar adawa 108 da 'yan jarida shida aka kama a kasar Habasha bisa zargin hannu da kungiyoyin 'yan ta'adda daban-daban. An gurfanar da wadanda ake tsare da su ne da laifuka a karkashin dokar yaki da ta’addanci da kuma kundin laifuffuka. Kame da yawa a cikin 2011 ya zo ne kwanaki kadan bayan wasu mutane sun soki gwamnati a bainar jama'a, suna da hannu a cikin kiraye-kirayen jama'a na yin gyara, ko neman izinin gudanar da zanga-zanga, ko yunkurin gudanar da aikin jarida na bincike a wani yanki na Habasha wanda gwamnati ta hana shiga. [22]

Amnesty International ta yi imanin cewa mutanen ba za su fuskanci shari'a ta gaskiya ba kuma za a yanke musu hukunci saboda amfani da 'yancin fadin albarkacin baki. Da yawa daga cikin fursunonin sun yi korafin cewa sun fuskanci azabtarwa kuma an tilasta musu sanya hannu kan ikirari ko kuma wata shaida. Kusan duk an hana su ganawa da lauyoyi da dangi a farkon tsare su. [23]

Shari'ar dai ta shiga siyasa sosai saboda sha'awar manyan jami'an gwamnati ciki har da Firayim Minista wanda ya bayyana a majalisar dokokin kasar cewa duk wadanda ake tuhuma suna da laifi. Firaministan ya fito fili ya yi barazanar ci gaba da kama shi. A cikin makon farko na watan Disamba an ce an kama mutane 135 a Oromia . Amnesty International ta yi kira ga Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, Tarayyar Turai, Tarayyar Afirka, da gwamnatoci: Gudanar da sa ido a tsanake kan shari'ar ta'addanci da ake yi da kuma shari'ar 'yan adawar siyasar kabilar Oromo da aka kama a shekarar 2011 tare da bayyana sakamakon binciken. [22]

'Yancin siyasa

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An kama ‘yan jarida biyu da ’yan siyasa hudu na adawa na jam’iyyar Unity for Democracy and Justice (UDJ), da na Ethiopian National Democratic Party, a ranar 14 ga Satumba da 9 ga Satumba, 2011. An zarge su da hannu a kungiyar Ginbot 7, haramtacciyar jam’iyyar siyasa. [24]

Zabe

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A cewar Amnesty International an matsa wa 'yan kasar lamba su fice daga jam'iyyun adawa a zaben watan Mayun 2010 . Rahotanni sun ce an yi wa masu kada kuri’a a birnin Addis Ababa barazanar janye tallafin da kasar ke ba su idan ba su zabi jam’iyyar EPRDF ba . An yi tashe-tashen hankula na siyasa: An kashe dan takara daya da masu fafutuka da dama. Rahotanni sun ce dakarun da ke dauke da makamai sun hana yin rajistar ‘yan takara. Jam’iyyun adawa sun ce jam’iyyar ta EPRDF ta ci zarafin mambobinsu, da duka da kuma tsare su a daidai lokacin da ake tunkarar zaben. An kama daruruwan mutane ba bisa ka'ida ba a yankin Oromia, galibi bisa dalilan goyon bayan kungiyar OLF. An bayar da rahoton tsare mutane ba tare da an gurfanar da su a gaban kotu ba, ana azabtar da su da kuma kashe su. [25]

Jam'iyyar Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front ( EPRDF ) ta karfafa ikon siyasa da kashi 99.6 cikin 100 a zaben 'yan majalisar dokoki na watan Mayun 2010. A cewar kungiyar kare hakkin bil adama ta Human Rights Watch, zaben ya kasance kafin watanni da dama ana tursasa magoya bayan jam'iyyar adawa. A cewar masu sa ido a zabukan na Turai, zaben ya yi kasa da ka'idojin kasa da kasa. Gwamnati tana da dabarar shekaru biyar don rufe sararin samaniya bisa tsari don adawar siyasa da suka mai zaman kanta.

'Yancin aikin jarida

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Yarjejeniyar Kare Hakkokin Dan Adam ta Duniya Sashe na 19 na ‘ yancin fadin albarkacin baki ya ce: Kowane mutum na da ‘yancin fadin albarkacin bakinsa; wannan haƙƙin ya haɗa da 'yancin yin ra'ayi ba tare da tsangwama ba da neman, karɓa da ba da bayanai da ra'ayoyi ta kowace kafofin watsa labaru ba tare da la'akari da iyaka ba.

1991-2018: EPRDF

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A cewar Reporters Without Borders Habasha ta kasance 139 daga cikin 178 a cikin sabuwar ƙididdiga ta duniya a cikin Janairu 2012. [26] Freedom House ta bayyana a shekara ta 2007 cewa 'yan kasar ba su da damar yin amfani da kafafen yada labarai kadan in ban da hanyoyin sadarwa na gwamnati, kuma galibin jaridu masu zaman kansu suna kokawa a bude suke kuma suna fuskantar cin zarafi na lokaci-lokaci daga gwamnati. [27]

Batun gwamnati, cin zarafi da kame masu rubutun ra'ayin yanar gizo da 'yan jarida yana tauye 'yancin 'yan jarida a Habasha:

  • A tsakanin shekara ta 2005 zuwa 2007, an kama akalla ‘yan jarida 18 da suka yi rubuce-rubuce na sukar gwamnati, bisa zargin kisan kiyashi da cin amanar kasa. Gwamnati ta yi amfani da dokokin 'yan jarida da ke kula da batanci wajen tsoratar da 'yan jaridar da ke sukar manufofinta. Hukumomi sun yi amfani da damuwa kan tashe-tashen hankula da ta'addanci wajen amfani da azabtarwa, dauri, da sauran hanyoyin danniya wajen rufe bakin masu suka bayan zaben, musamman mutanen da ke goyon bayan jam'iyyar adawa ta Oromo National Congress (ONC). [28]
  • A watan Disamba na 2009, an yanke wa Martin Schibbye da Johan Persson hukunci bisa laifin "ba da goyon baya ga ta'addanci" da kuma shiga kasar ba bisa ka'ida ba "don aikata wani abu da ke barazana ga rayuwar al'ummar Habasha." Matsayi: An yafe [29]
  • A cikin 2011, an kama Woubshet Taye Abebe wanda ya lashe lambar yabo ta Hellman-Hammett. An tuhume shi ne a karkashin dokar yaki da ta’addanci. Kafin kama shi, shi ne mataimakin editan jaridar Awramba Times . Matsayi: A kurkuku [29]
  • A shekarar 2012, Reeyot Alemu Gobebo, 'yar jarida mai suna Feteh, an same ta da laifuka uku a karkashin dokar ta'addanci, kuma an yanke masa hukuncin daurin shekaru 14 a farko. An rage wannan hukuncin zuwa shekaru 5 akan daukaka kara. Matsayi: A kurkuku. [29]
  • A shekarar 2012 PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award an kama Eskinder Nega wanda ya samu lambar yabo a karkashin zargin ta'addanci saboda rahotonsa kan rikicin Larabawa ;
  • A shekarar 2014 an kama wasu mambobi shida na kungiyar masu rubutun ra'ayin yanar gizo ta Zone 9 a karkashin zargin ta'addanci da suka shafi bayar da rahoto da kuma amfani da kayan aikin sirri na kan layi.
  • Har ila yau , Habtamu Ayalew da sauran jiga-jigan ‘yan adawa an daure su da azabtarwa tun daga watan Yulin 2014 zuwa karshen 2015. [30]

Dukkan mutanen da aka ambata suna tsare a gidan yarin Kaliti .

2018 – na yanzu: Abiy Ahmed

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A lokacin firaminista Abiy Ahmed da aka fara a watan Afrilun 2018, an saki dubban fursunonin siyasa a watan Mayun 2018. Adadin daure 'yan jarida a gidan yari a shekarar farko ta mulkin Abiy ya ragu a karon farko tun shekara ta 2004. A watan Afrilun 2019, kafafen yada labarai sun ja tsaki wajen sukar gwamnati saboda tsoron hukunci. [31] Daga Mayu 2019 zuwa Disamba 2020, Addis Standard ta kirga 33 tsare 'yan jarida. An bayar da mafi yawansu ne bisa beli, wasu kuma ba tare da tuhuma ba. Tsare mafi dadewa kafin beli a cikin wadanda aka lissafa shi ne na dan jarida mai zaman kansa na Kenya Yassin Juma, wanda aka tsare tsawon kwanaki 49, ana zarginsa da "yunzura rikicin kabilanci da kuma yunkurin kashe manyan jami'an Habasha".

A ranar 27 ga Maris, 2020, 'yan sandan Habasha sun kama dan jarida Yayesew Shimelis sakamakon rahotonsa game da cutar ta COVID-19 . Bayan da kotu ta bayar da umarnin a sake shi, ‘yan sandan sun kara da wasu tuhume-tuhume da suka hada da ta’addanci. Kwamitin Kare 'Yan Jaridu ya kira sabbin zarge-zargen "abin kunya", kuma Gamayyar 'Yan Jaridu Daya ta bayyana shi a cikin jerin 'yan jarida 10 da aka kai wa hari a watan Mayu 2020.

'Yancin ƙungiyoyi

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Masu zanga-zangar

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A cikin 2005, an yi kisan kiyashin 'yan sandan Habasha . A cikin wannan, an yi iƙirarin cewa 'yan sandan Habasha sun kashe masu zanga-zangar adawa kusan 200, waɗanda ke zanga-zangar mayar da martani ga babban zaɓe na watan Mayun 2005. A yayin wannan, an yi ta harbe-harbe kai tsaye daga dakarun gwamnati kan masu zanga-zangar da kuma masu zanga-zangar.

Kungiyoyin farar hula

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A ranar 6 ga watan Janairun 2009, majalisar dokokin Habasha ta zartar da "Shawarar kungiyoyin agaji da kungiyoyi (Dokar NGO)", wadda "ta aikata laifukan mafi yawan ayyukan kare hakkin bil'adama a kasar" a cewar HRW, wanda ya kara da cewa "dokar tsautawa ce kai tsaye ga gwamnatocin da ke taimakawa. Habasha kuma hakan ya nuna damuwarsa game da takunkumin da dokar ta sanya kan 'yancin yin tarayya da fadin albarkacin baki." [32] Ƙimar Ƙungiyoyi da Ƙungiyoyin Ƙungiyoyin Ƙididdiga na 621 / 2009 na Habasha (Dokar Ƙungiyoyin Jama'a ko Dokar CSO) an ƙaddamar da shi a kan 6 Janairu 2009. Dokar CSO ta 2009 tana daga cikin matakai da yawa da gwamnati ta bi bayan 2005 na mulkin kama karya kuma ta yi ƙoƙarin yin nasara har zuwa wani mataki ko dai ta mallaki ƙungiyoyin farar hula masu zaman kansu ko kuma maye gurbinsu da ƙungiyoyin sa-kai na gwamnati (GONGOs). [33]

A cewar wata takarda da Cibiyar kare hakkin bil adama ta kasa da kasa a Makarantar Koyon Shari'a ta Jami'ar Arewa maso Yamma, ta ce, "Dokar CSO ta samo asali ne daga babban zargin gwamnatin Habasha da kungiyoyin farar hula" kuma an yi amfani da su akai-akai don yin shiru ga duk wata kungiya da ke kare hakkin bil'adama a. Habasha. [34] Wannan doka ta fi irin wannan doka ta Rasha kuma ta fi kama da daftarin kudirin doka na kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu na Zimbabwe wanda ba a taba sanya hannu kan doka ba. Bincike ya nuna cewa dokar CSO ta Habasha na daga cikin mafi takurawa a duniya. [34]

Wannan doka ta haramta wa kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu na "kasashen waje" shiga ayyuka da dama da suka hada da 'yancin dan adam, 'yancin mata, 'yancin yara, 'yancin nakasa, 'yancin zama dan kasa, warware rikici ko mulkin dimokradiyya. An fadada ma'anar "NGO na waje" zuwa hada da kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu na cikin gida wadanda ke karbar fiye da kashi goma na kudaden su daga kasashen waje. Ganin cewa galibin kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu na cikin gida ba za su iya dorewar kansu ba tare da wasu kudade na kasashen waje ba, wannan ma'anar tana da fa'ida wanda ya hada da kusan dukkanin kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu a Habasha. Sai dai ita kanta gwamnatin kasar Habasha tana karbar kashi 50 zuwa 60 na kasafin kudin kasar daga gwamnatocin kasashen waje, wanda bisa ga ma’anarta a fili zai mayar da ita wata kasa ta waje. [35]

A cikin shekarun da suka gabata kungiyoyin Habasha da suka sami kansu a matsayin masu cin zarafi ta hanyar amfani da Dokar CSO sun hada da Hukumar Kare Hakkokin Dan Adam ta Habasha (EHRCO), kungiyar lauyoyin mata ta Habasha (EWLA) wacce ta ba da sabis na kyauta ga matan Habasha waɗanda ba za su iya biyan kuɗi ba. lauya. Duk da cewa sashe na 31 na Kundin Tsarin Mulkin Habasha ya tanadi cewa "kowane mutum na da 'yancin yin takara ta kowace hanya ko manufa", haramcin kungiyoyin sa-kai da dokar CSO ta yi ya yi tasiri mai tsanani na tauye hakkin 'yan kasa. kamar yadda membobin kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu ba za su iya yin tarayya da 'yanci ba.

Sadarwar lantarki

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A cikin 2012, Habasha ta zartar da wata doka da ta haramta samar da sadarwar muryar Intanet ( VoIP ) da kuma buƙatar bincika duk wani kayan sadarwar murya da aka shigo da shi. [36] Bugu da ƙari, ya haramta "ƙetare kayan aikin sadarwar da mai ba da sabis na sadarwa ya kafa", wanda ke hana damar Intanet ga ETC kawai. [37] [38]

A cewar rahoton Freedom House na Freedom on the Net 2013, Habasha tana matsayi na 56 a cikin kasashe 60 akan 'yancin Intanet [39] da 47th daga cikin 53 a cikin 2012. [40]

A watan Oktoban 2016, da yawa daga Habasha sun yi zanga-zangar nuna adawa da gwamnati bayan da suka haramta amfani da shafukan sada zumunta, tare da haramta gidajen talabijin da dama. Sakamakon haka an kashe daruruwan mutane tare da daure wasu daruruwa.

Hakkokin mata

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Wani bincike da kwamitin kula da al'adun gargajiya na kasar Habasha ya gudanar a shekara ta 2003, ya nuna cewa aure ta hanyar sace mutane ya kai kashi 69% na auren kasar, inda kashi 80 cikin dari a yankin mafi girma, Oromia, kuma ya kai kashi 92 cikin 100 na al'ummar kudancin kasar., da kuma yankin jama'a . [41] [42]

A ranar 9 ga Nuwamba, 2021, Human Rights Watch ta ba da rahoton cewa toshe tallafin da gwamnatin Habasha ta yi, tare da cibiyoyin kiwon lafiya a yankin Tigray na arewacin Habasha, yana hana wadanda suka tsira daga cin zarafin mata samun kulawa mai mahimmanci. Rahoton mai suna "A Koyaushe Ina Tuna Wannan Rana: Samun Sabis na Masu Raya Rikicin Cin Hanci da Jinsi a Yankin Tigray na Habasha," ya rubuta mummunan tasirin kiwon lafiya, rauni, da kuma kyama da wadanda suka tsira daga fyade suka fuskanta tun farkon rikicin makami a Tigray. [43]

Kaciyar mata

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Dangane da Binciken Kiwon Lafiyar Jama'a na Habasha na 2005, fiye da kashi 74% na mata masu shekaru 15 zuwa 49 an yi musu wani nau'i na kaciya da yanke tare da fiye da kashi 97% a yankin Somaliya .

Haƙƙin nakasa

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Daga cikin wasu al'ummomin Omotic Karo da Hamar da ke kudancin Habasha, manya da yara da ke fama da nakasa ana daukar su a matsayin mingi, "marasa tsarki". An yi imanin na ƙarshe na yin tasiri ga wasu; An kashe nakasassu jarirai a al'adance ba tare da binne su ba. [44] A hukumance kungiyar Karo ta haramta yin hakan a watan Yulin 2012.

Rikicin kabilanci

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Cin zarafi akan al'ummar Oromo

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Zanga-zangar ta barke a fadin kasar baki daya, wadda ta taru a yankin Oromia, ta barke ne tun daga ranar 23 ga watan Oktoba, 2019, wanda wani mai fafutuka kuma mai yada labarai Jawar Mohammed ya yi zargin cewa jami'an tsaro sun yi yunkurin tsare shi. A cewar rahotannin hukuma, an kashe mutane 86. A ranar 29 ga Mayu, 2020, Amnesty International ta fitar da wani rahoto da ke zargin jami'an tsaron Habasha da tsare jama'a da kisan gilla . Rahoton ya bayyana cewa a shekarar 2019, a kalla mutane 25, da ake zargin suna goyon bayan rundunar ‘yan tawayen Oromo, sun kashe a wasu sassan yankin Oromia . Tsakanin Janairu da Satumba 2019, aƙalla mutane 10,000 ne aka tsare bisa zarginsu, inda akasarinsu “an yi musu mugun duka”. [45]

Sauran tashe-tashen hankula a Gedeo da unguwannin da ke makwabtaka da su

gyara sashe

Rikicin kabilanci da ya barke a kudancin kasar tsakanin Oromo, mafi yawan kabila a kasar, da Gedeo da kuma a gabashi, tsakanin Oromo da Somaliya, ya kai ga kasar Habasha ta kasance mafi yawan mutanen da suka tsere daga gidajensu a duniya a shekarar 2018. Kimanin 'yan gudun hijira miliyan 1.4 ne suka tsere daga gidajensu a Habasha a cikin 2018. Adadin da ya fi yawa sun fito ne daga rikicin Gedeo da Oromo, inda kusan 800,000 galibinsu 'yan kabilar Gedeos suka tsere daga gundumar Guji ta Yamma a Oromia, adadin da ya fi yawa kuma cikin kankanin lokaci, fiye da yadda rikicin Rohingya na Myanmar ya yi kamari a shekarar da ta gabata. Gwamnati na matsawa 'yan gudun hijirar komawa gidajensu duk da cewa suna fargabar rayuwarsu, galibi ta hanyar hana 'yan gudun hijirar samun agajin jin kai.

Rikicin da ake yiwa al'ummar Anuak a Gambela

gyara sashe

Yankin Gambela yana da yawan jama'a 307,000, galibi 'yan asalin Anuak da Nuer . Ƙasarta mai albarka ta jawo hankalin masu zuba jari na waje da na cikin gida waɗanda suka yi hayar filaye masu yawa akan farashi mai kyau. Daga 2008 zuwa Janairu 2011, Habasha ta yi hayar aƙalla hekta miliyan 3.6 na fili, yanki mai girman Netherlands . Ana samun karin fili mai fadin hekta miliyan 2.1 ta bankin gwamnatin tarayya domin zuba jarin noma. A Gambella kashi 42 cikin 100 na filayen ana sayar da su ne ga masu zuba jari. [46] Wani rahoto makamancin wannan na shekarar 2012 na Human Rights Watch ya kuma bayyana shirin gwamnatin Habasha na 2010-2011 na kauye a Gambela, tare da shirin yin irin wannan matsuguni a wasu yankuna.

A shekara ta 2013, Cibiyar Oakland ta fitar da wani rahoto inda ta zargi gwamnatin Habasha da tilasta wa "dubun dubatar 'yan asalin kasar hijira daga yankunansu" a yankin Gambela. [47] A cewar rahotanni da dama da kungiyar ta fitar, wadanda suka ki amincewa, na fuskantar barazana iri-iri da suka hada da cin zarafi da lalata da su, wanda a wasu lokutan kan kai ga rasa rayukansu. [48]

Gwamnatin Habasha ta musanta zarge-zargen da ake yi mata na kwace filaye, maimakon haka ta yi nuni da kyakkyawan yanayin tattalin arzikin kasar a matsayin shaida na fa'idar shirin raya kasa.

Hakkin LGBT

gyara sashe

Ayyukan luwadi haramun ne a Habasha. A cewar kundin shari'a na 629, an yanke hukuncin daurin shekaru 15 zuwa ɗaurin rai da rai ga ayyukan jima'i. Habasha ta kasance ƙasa mai ra'ayin mazan jiya. Yawancin mutane suna adawa da mutanen LGBT kuma zalunci ya zama ruwan dare bisa dalilan addini da na al'umma. Luwadi ya fito fili a kasar bayan da aka gaza yin kira ga Majalisar Ministoci a shekara ta 2008, kuma al’amuran LGBT sun fara habaka dan kadan a manyan biranen kasar, kamar Addis Ababa. Wasu fitattun otal-otal kamar Sheraton Addis da Hilton Hotel sun zama wuraren zarge-zarge da zarge-zarge. [49]

Cocin Orthodox na Habasha yana taka rawa a gaba wajen adawa; wasu daga cikin mambobinta sun kafa kungiyoyi masu adawa da luwadi. Misali, Dereje Negash, wani fitaccen mai fafutuka, ya kafa "Zim Anlem" a cikin 2014, wanda ke da al'ada da kuma adawa da jinsi . [50] Bisa ga 2007 Pew Global Attitudes Project, 97 bisa dari [51] na Habasha sun yi imanin cewa liwadi hanya ce ta rayuwa wanda bai kamata al'umma ta yarda da su ba. Wannan shi ne karo na biyu mafi girma na rashin karbuwa a cikin kasashe 45 da aka yi binciken. [52]

Yin doka

gyara sashe

  Yin amfani da karfi ba bisa ka'ida ba ya zama sabon al'amari na 'yan sanda a Habasha. A lokacin mulkin Dergi, bangaren tsaro yana da muhimmiyar rawa wajen murkushe kungiyoyin adawa da abokan hamayyar 'yan tawaye. An kuma ga yadda ake cin zarafin al’ummar yankin. Har ila yau, cin zarafi ya kasance a lokacin mulkin EPRDF; A zanga-zangar da aka yi a babban zaben shekara ta 2005, jami'an 'yan sanda sun kashe mutane 193 ta hanyar murkushe gwamnati. [53] A sashe na 52 na kundin tsarin mulkin kasar, ya wajaba ne ‘yan sandan tarayya su rika kula da ‘yan sandan jihohi da kuma tabbatar da zaman lafiya da zaman lafiya a jihar. [54]

Ta'asar 'yan sanda ta sake bayyana a lokacin Abiy Ahmed. [55] A ranar 26 ga watan Agusta, 2019, wani bidiyo na wani mutum da aka daure da mari da jami’ansa biyu suka yi masa ya bazu a shafin Twitter, inda da yawa suka nuna bacin ransu ga gwamnatin gwamnati. [56]

Abubuwan da suka faru

gyara sashe

A cewar wani rahoto da kungiyar kare hakkin bil adama ta Human Rights Watch (HRW) ta fitar a watan Yunin 2008, sojojin Habasha sun aiwatar da hukuncin kisa da azabtarwa da kuma fyade a kasar Ogadenia, a wani bangare na yaki da 'yan tawaye . [57] Ma'aikatar harkokin wajen kasar Habasha ta mayar da martani da wata babbar sanarwar manema labarai inda ta bayyana cewa, sun gudanar da wani bincike a cikin watan Agusta da Satumba na wannan shekara, wanda "ba a sami wani babban laifin take hakkin bil'adama ba, face laifukan yaki ko cin zarafin bil'adama" a lokacin da suke mayar da martani. Wani harin da aka kai a yankin mai na Abole, amma ya yi ikirarin cewa binciken ya gano "yawan shaidun ci gaba da cin zarafi da kungiyar ONLF ta yi." [58] Duk da haka, rahoton shekara-shekara na Ma'aikatar Harkokin Wajen Amurka game da 'yancin ɗan adam ya lura cewa Lisan Yohannes, "tsohuwar jam'iyya mai mulki", ta jagoranci binciken, alƙawari wanda "bude tambayoyi game da 'yancin kai na binciken." [59]

Bayan ayyana dokar ta-baci a shekarar 2016, an samu rahotannin mutuwar dubban ‘yan kasar. Bayan zanga-zangar da aka yi a yankunan Oromo, Amhara, da Kudancin Kasa, Al'umma, da Jama'a, Hukumar Kare Hakkokin Dan Adam ta Habasha ta bayar da rahoton cewa, an samu asarar rayuka 669 a jimillar. A cewar wasu kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu da kuma jami'an yankin Oromo, an sami asarar daruruwan rayuka sakamakon kungiyoyin 'yan bindiga a gabashin kasar Habasha

A ranar 30 ga Yuni, 2020, Amnesty International ta yi kira ga hukumomin Habasha da su yi cikakken bincike ba tare da nuna son kai ba kan kisan gillar da aka yi wa fitaccen mawakin Oromo Hachalu Hundessa a ranar 29 ga watan Yuni. [60]

Cibiyoyin tsare mutane

gyara sashe

A cikin rahoton HRCO na 2017, an duba wuraren da ake tsare da su a Habasha. Fursunonin sun cika makil, misali gidan yarin da ke Asella yana da karfin mutane 400, amma yana tsare da mutane 3000. An yi wa fursunonin duka, wasu kuma an kashe su, kamar Ayele Beyene da ke Kilinto wanda masu gadi suka lakada masa duka, sannan aka yi watsi da raunin da ya samu wanda a karshe ya yi sanadiyyar mutuwarsa. Da zarar an sanya mutane a gidan yari iyalansu ba su da masaniya game da inda suke. Wadanda ake tsare da su a wasu wuraren ba za su iya karbar baƙi ba kuma babu wata ma’adanar bayanai ko ƙungiyar da za ta gano inda fursunonin suke.

A cikin rahoton HRCO na 2017, an bayyana yanayin gidan yarin Finote Selam da ke Amhara, da na Awash Arba, da kuma kurkukun Kilinto. A gidan yarin na Finote Selam rahotanni sun nuna cewa an yi wa fursunonin duka tare da azabtar da su, kuma an yiwa kabilar Amahara da Oromo muni fiye da sauran kungiyoyin. An kuma yiwa wadanda ake tsare da su shafe lokaci suna nutsewa a cikin ramukan dakin wankan najasar mutane. A gidan yarin na Awash Arba, sun cika cunkoso, ba a ba su abinci ba, an yi musu duka, an tilasta musu yin aikin hannu. Bugu da kari, fursunonin sun shafe lokaci a waje suna tafiya babu takalmi da zama a rana tsawon kwanaki a jere. A Kilinto, an tilasta wa fursunonin yin ikirari kan barazanar azabtar da su, yayin da ake wulakanta su.

A shekarar 2018, karkashin sabon jagorancin Firayim Minista Abiy Ahmed, gwamnatin Habasha ta rufe Jail Ogaden a yankin Somali na Habasha. An gudanar da aikin Jail Ogaden a karkashin tsohon shugaban yankin Somaliya, Abdi Mohamoud Omar, tare da daure da dama daga cikin gidan yari ba tare da tuhumar su ba. Rahoton Human Rights Watch ya nuna cewa fursunonin suna fama da rashin abinci mai gina jiki, an yi musu dukan tsiya, da kuma tsare su a cikin kananan tsare-tsaren da ke yada cutar da ke yaduwa. [61] An kama tsohon shugaban gidan yarin Shamaahiye Sheikh Farah a watan Satumban 2018 saboda rawar da ya taka a gidan yarin. Babban abin da ya fi muni na azabtarwa da Shamaahiye ya yi shi ne, wata wata na yunwa, inda ba a bar kowa daga cikin fursunonin ya ci abinci ba. [62]

Halin tarihi

gyara sashe

Shafi na gaba yana nuna ƙimar Habasha daga 1972 zuwa 2011 a cikin rahoton 'Yanci a Duniya, wanda Freedom House ke bugawa kowace shekara. Ƙimar 1 "kyauta" ne; 7, "ba kyauta ba". [63] 1

Duba sauran bayanai

gyara sashe

 

  • Hukumar Shari'a ta Habasha da 'yan jaridar Sweden 2011
  • Fataucin mutane a Habasha
  • Yanar gizo a Habasha #Tace
  • Gidan yarin Kaliti, sanannen kurkukun da ake tsare da 'yan jarida da dama
  • Hakkin LGBT a Habasha
  • Siyasar Habasha
  • Woineshet Zebene
  • Yegna, ƙungiyar pop ta mata
  • Jerin sunayen 'yan jarida da masu fafutuka da aka tsare a Habasha (2023)
  • Yakin Tigray
    • Laifukan yaki a yakin Tigray
    • Rikicin Jima'i a Yakin Tigray
    • Yunwa a arewacin Habasha (2020-yanzu)

Bayanan kula

gyara sashe
1. Lura cewa "Shekarar" tana nufin "Shekarar da aka rufe". Don haka, bayanin shekarar da aka yi alama ta 2008 ta fito ne daga rahoton da aka buga a shekara ta 2009, da sauransu.
2. ^ Tun daga 1 ga Janairu.
3. ^ Rahoton na 1982 ya shafi shekara ta 1981 da rabi na farko na 1982, kuma rahoton na 1984 mai zuwa ya shafi rabin na biyu na 1982 da kuma gaba ɗaya 1983. Don samun sauƙi, waɗannan rahotannin "shekaru da rabi" guda biyu masu banƙyama an raba su zuwa rahotanni na tsawon shekaru uku ta hanyar haɗin gwiwa.

Manazarta

gyara sashe
  1. ↑ name=":3">"Ethiopia". United States Department of State (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-08-31.
  2. ↑ name=":3">"Ethiopia". United States Department of State (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-08-31.
  3. ↑ name=":02">Vibhute, K. I. (January–March 2012). "Right to Access to Justice in Ethiopia: An Illusory Fundamental Right?". Journal of the Indian Law Institute. 54 (1): 67–83. JSTOR 43953526 – via JSTOR.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Vibhute, K. I. (January–March 2012). "Right to Access to Justice in Ethiopia: An Illusory Fundamental Right?". Journal of the Indian Law Institute. 54 (1): 67–83. JSTOR 43953526 – via JSTOR.
  5. ↑ name=":5">Brüne, Stefan (1990). "Ideology, Government and Development - The People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia". Northeast African Studies. 12 (2/3): 189–199. ISSN 0740-9133. JSTOR 43660324.
  6. ↑ Brüne, Stefan (1990). "Ideology, Government and Development - The People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia". Northeast African Studies. 12 (2/3): 189–199. ISSN 0740-9133. JSTOR 43660324.
  7. ↑ name=":6">"The Constitution of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia" (PDF). Negarit Gazeta. 12 September 1987. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  8. ↑ name=":7">Regassa, Tsegaye (2009). "Making Legal Sense of Human Rights: The Judicial Role in Protecting Human Rights in Ethiopia". Mizan Law Review. 3: 288–330 – via African Journals Online.
  9. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :6
  10. ↑ Regassa, Tsegaye (2009). "Making Legal Sense of Human Rights: The Judicial Role in Protecting Human Rights in Ethiopia". Mizan Law Review. 3: 288–330 – via African Journals Online.
  11. ↑ Harbeson, John W. (September 1996). "Elections and Democratization in Post-Mengistu Ethiopia" (PDF) (Report prepared for the United States Agency for International Development project on Elections in War-Torn Societies). Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  12. ↑ Teshome B., Wondwosen (2009). "Ethiopian Opposition Political Parties and Rebel Fronts: Past and Present". International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences. 3: 2068–2076.
  13. ↑ name=":8">Wiebel, Jacob (2015). ""Let the Red Terror Intensify": Political Violence, Governance and Society in Urban Ethiopia, 1976-78". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 48 (1): 13–29. ISSN 0361-7882. JSTOR 44715382.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :8
  15. ↑ Harff, Barbara; Gurr, Ted Robert (1988). "Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases Since 1945". International Studies Quarterly. 32 (3): 359–371. doi:10.2307/2600447. JSTOR 2600447.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Tronvoll, Kjetil (2008). "Human Rights Violations in Federal Ethiopia: When Ethnic Identity is a Political Stigma". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 15 (1): 49–79. doi:10.1163/138548708X272528. JSTOR 24674971 – via JSTOR.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Abbink, Joe (July 1995). "Breaking and Making the State: The Dynamics of Ethnic Democracy in Ethiopia". Journal of Contemporary African Studies. 13 (2): 149–163. doi:10.1080/02589009508729570.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Transitional Period Charter of Ethiopia" (PDF). Negarit Gazeta. 22 July 1991. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Cohen, John M. (1995). ""Ethnic Federalism" in Ethiopia". Northeast African Studies. 2 (2): 157–188. doi:10.1353/nas.1995.0016. ISSN 0740-9133. JSTOR 41931208. S2CID 154783804.
  20. ↑ "Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia" (PDF). Constitute Project. 8 December 1994. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
  21. ↑ Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa: Ethiopia AI 27 October 2011
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Dismantling Dissent: Intensified crackdown on free speech in Ethiopia 16 December 2011
  23. ↑ Amnesty International report on growing repression in Ethiopia Amnesty International 15 December 2011
  24. ↑ Amnesty action letter Ethiopia 19 September 2011
  25. ↑ "Amnesty International's 2011 Annual Report on Ethiopia".
  26. ↑ "Ethiopia articles Reporters Without Borders". Archived from the original on 3 January 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
  27. ↑ "Map of Freedom 2007". Freedom House. 2007. Archived from the original on 9 September 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
  28. ↑ "Essential Background: Overview of human rights issues in Ethiopia". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 "Ethiopia: Terrorism Law Decimates Media". Human Rights Watch. 3 May 2013. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
  30. ↑ "Ethiopia: Drop Case Against Bloggers, Journalists". Human Rights Watch (in Turanci). 2014-07-19. Retrieved 2023-04-03.
  31. ↑ "Ethiopia: Abiy's First Year as Prime Minister, Review of Freedom of Expression". Human Rights Watch. 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2019-04-03.
  32. ↑ "Ethiopia: New Law Ratchets up Repression", Human Rights Watch website (accessed 20 March 2009)
  33. ↑ Abadir M. Ibrahim, The Role of Civil Society in Africa's Quest for Democratization 140 (Springer Pub. 2015)
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 "Sounding the Horn: Ethiopia's Civil Society Law Threatens Human Rights Defenders", Yalemzewd Bekele Mulat, Cherice Hopkins, and Liane Ngin Noble, Sandra Babcock and Nicolas Martinez (eds.), Center for International Human Rights, Northwestern University School of Law, November 2009.
  35. ↑ "Development Aid to Ethiopia: Overlooking Violence, Marginalization, and Political Repression ", Oakland Institute, 17 July 2013.
  36. ↑ "New Ethiopian law criminalises Skype, installs Internet filters". Africa Review. 12 June 2012. Archived from the original on 19 November 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
  37. ↑ "Proclamation No. 761/2012 Telecom Fraud Offence Proclamation (English translation)". Ethiopian Legal Brief. 13 December 2012. Archived from the original on 26 August 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
  38. ↑ "Proclamation No. 761/2012 Telecom Fraud Offence Proclamation" (PDF). Abyssinia Law. 4 September 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
  39. ↑ "Freedom on the Net 2013" (PDF). Freedom House. 3 October 2013. p. 25. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
  40. ↑ "Freedom on the Net 2012" (PDF). Freedom House. 24 September 2012. p. 26. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
  41. ↑ "Youth in Crisis: Coming of age in the 21st century". Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. 23 February 2007. Archived from the original on 5 December 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
  42. ↑ "UNICEF supports fight to end marriage by abduction in Ethiopia" (PDF). UNICEF. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
  43. ↑ "Ethiopia: Blocking Tigray Aid Harms Rape Survivor". Human Rights Watch. 9 November 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  44. ↑ Matthew D. LaPlante, Special to (2011-11-05). "Is the tide turning against the killing of 'cursed' infants in Ethiopia?". CNN Digital (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-02-10.
  45. ↑ "New report alleges killings, mass detentions in Ethiopia". Associated Press. 29 May 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  46. ↑ "Ethiopia: Forced Relocations Bring Hunger, Hardship". Human Rights Watch (in Turanci). 2012-01-16. Retrieved 2023-09-08.
  47. ↑ "Unheard Voices: The Human Rights Impact of Land Investments on Indigenous Communities in Gambella" (PDF). The Oakland Institute. 2013.
  48. ↑ "Country: Ethiopia". The Oakland Institute. 4 January 2012. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
  49. ↑ Baker, Katie (12 December 2013). "'A Graveyard for Homosexuals'". Newsweek (in Turanci). Retrieved 2 December 2021.
  50. ↑ "Ethiopia groups to stage anti-gay protest". www.aljazeera.com (in Turanci). Retrieved 2 December 2021.
  51. ↑ The number of adults (all were 18 to 64 years of age) surveyed in Ethiopia was 710, yielding a margin of error of 4 percent with a 95 percent confidence level.
  52. ↑ ""Pew Global Attitudes Project", (pages 35, 81, and 117)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 February 2010. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
  53. ↑ "'I fought the law and the law won': Community Policing in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia" (PDF). 26 June 2022. p. 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2024.
  54. ↑ "Law on police use of force in Ethiopia". The Law on Police Use of Force (in Turanci). 13 April 2021. Retrieved 2022-06-26.
  55. ↑ "Ethiopian Police service recognition event at Meskel Square". Borkena Ethiopian News (in Turanci). 2022-06-05. Retrieved 2022-06-25.
  56. ↑ AfricaNews (2019-08-27). "Viral video of Addis Ababa police brutality: Ethiopians call for justice". Africanews (in Turanci). Retrieved 2022-06-25.
  57. ↑ "Ethiopia: Army Commits Executions, Torture, and Rape in Ogaden". Human Rights Watch. 2008-06-12. Retrieved 2008-06-22.
  58. ↑ "Human Rights Watch: Flawed Methodology, Unsubstantiated Allegations", Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (accessed 17 March 2009)
  59. ↑ "2008 Human Rights Reports: Ethiopia", Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, US State Department (accessed 8 July 2009)
  60. ↑ "Ethiopia: Popular musician's killing must be fully investigated". Amnesty International. 30 June 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2020.
  61. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :2
  62. ↑ "UNPO: Ogaden: Former 'Jail Ogaden' Prison Commissioner Arrested". unpo.org. Retrieved 2018-12-02.
  63. ↑ Freedom House (2012). "Country ratings and status, FIW 1973-2012" (XLS). Retrieved 2012-08-22.
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