Wikipedia

Ramin hakar ma'adinai

A cikin hakar ma'adinan, shine kayayyakin da suka rage bayan aiwatar da aikin raba juzu'i mai mahimmanci daga juzu'in rashin tattalin arziki ( gangue ) na tama . Wutsiyar wutsiya sun bambanta da nauyi mai yawa, wanda shine dutsen sharar gida ko wasu kayan da suka wuce tama ko ma'adinai kuma ana yin gudun hijira a lokacin hakar ma'adinai ba tare da sarrafa su ba.

toton kogon hake ma afjnai
Wurin hako ma adinai

Ana iya yin hakar ma'adanai daga ma'adanin ta hanyoyi biyu: ma'adinin placer, wanda ke amfani da ruwa da nauyi don tattara ma'adanai masu mahimmanci, ko ma'adinan dutse mai wuya, wanda ya rushe dutsen da ke dauke da ma'adinin sannan kuma ya dogara da halayen sunadarai don mayar da hankali ga abin da ake nema. abu. A karshen, hakar ma'adanai daga ma'adinai na bukatar comminution, watau, nika tama cikin lafiya barbashi don saukake hakar na manufa (s). Saboda wannan comminution, wutsiya sun kunshi slurry na lallausan barbashi, jere daga girman yashi zuwa Yan micrometers. Yawancin wutsiya na ma'adanan ana samar da su daga injin niƙa a cikin nau'i na slurry, wanda shine cakuda bangarorin ma'adinai masu kyau da ruwa. 

Wutsiya na iya zama tushen hadari na sinadarai masu guba kamar karfe mai nauyi, sulfides da abun ciki na rediyo . Wadannan sinadarai suna da hadari musamman idan aka adana su cikin ruwa a cikin tafkunan bayan dam din wutsiya .[ana buƙatar hujja] suna da hadari ga manyan barna ko digogi daga madatsun ruwa, suna haifar da bala'o'in muhalli . Saboda wadannan da sauran abubuwan da suka shafi muhalli kamar zubar ruwa na kasa, hayaki mai guba da mutuwar tsuntsaye, tarin wutsiya da tafkuna galibi suna karkashin bincike na tsari. Akwai hanyoyi da yawa don dawo da kimar tattalin arziki, kunshi ko kuma rage tasirin wutsiya. Duk da haka, a duniya, wadannan ayyukan ba su da kyau, wani lokacin take hakkin dan adam. Don rage hadarin cutarwa, an kafa ka'idar matakin farko na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya don sarrafa wutsiya 2020.

Kalmomi

gyara sashe

Har ila yau ana kiran wutsiya nawa juji, zubar da ruwa, slimes, ƙi, ragowar leach, slickens, ko terra-cone (terrikon) .

Misalai

gyara sashe

Sulfide ma'adanai

gyara sashe

An bayyana kwararar wutsiyoyi daga hakar ma'adinan sulfidic a matsayin "mafi girman alhaki na muhalli na masana'antar hakar ma'adinai". [1] Wadannan wutsiyoyi sun kunshi adadi mai yawa na pyrite (FeS 2 ) da Iron (II) sulfide (FeS), wadanda aka ki daga abubuwan da ake nema na jan karfe da nickel, da kuma kwal. Ko da yake ba su da lahani a karkashin kasa, wadannan ma'adanai suna amsawa ga iska a gaban kananan kwayoyin cuta, wadanda idan ba a gudanar da su yadda ya kamata ba suna haifar da magudanar ruwa na acid .

 
Yaro mai rawaya a cikin rafi yana karba magudanar ruwa daga haKar ma'adinan kwal

Phosphate dutse ma'adinai

gyara sashe
 
Tarin Phosphogypsum dake kusa da Fort Meade, Florida . Waɗannan sun kunshi sharar fage na masana'antar takin phosphate.

Tsakanin tan miliyan 100 da miliyan 280 na sharar phosphogypsum an kiyasta ana samarwa duk shekara sakamakon sarrafa dutsen phosphate don samar da takin phosphate. [2] Bugu da Kari, rashin amfani kuma mai yawa, phosphogypsum yana da aikin rediyo saboda kasancewar uranium da thorium da ke faruwa ta halitta, da 'yar su isotopes . Ya danganta da farashin da za a iya samu akan kasuwar uranium, hakar abun cikin uranium na iya zama mai fa'ida ta fuskar tattalin arziki ko da babu wasu abubuwan karfafawa, kamar rage cutar da kananan karfe na rediyo ke yi ga muhalli.

Aluminum

gyara sashe

Bauxite tailings samfurin sharar gida ne da aka samar a cikin samar da masana'antu na aluminum .[3])[4] [5][6]

Yin tanadi don kusan tan miliyan 77 da ake samarwa a kowace shekara yana daya daga cikin manyan matsalolin masana'antar ma'adinai ta aluminum.[7][8][9]

Ilimin tattalin arziki

gyara sashe

Ayyukan hakar ma'adinai na farko sau da yawa ba su dauki isassun matakai don sanya wuraren wutsiya marasa lafiya bayan rufewa.[10][11][12]

Ma'adinai na zamani, musamman wadanda ke cikin hukunce-hukuncen da ke da ingantattun ka'idojin hakar ma'adinai da kuma wadanda kamfanonin hakar ma'adinai ke sarrafawa, galibi sun hada da gyarawa da kuma rufe wuraren da ya dace na wutsiya a cikin farashi da ayyukansu.[13] Alal misali, lardin Quebec, Kanada, yana bukatar ba kawai kaddamar da shirin rufewa kafin fara aikin hakar ma'adinai ba, har ma da ajiya na garantin kudi daidai da 100% na kimar gyarawa. Matsalolin wutsiya galibi sune mafi girman alhakin muhalli don aikin hakar ma'adinai.[14]

Wutsiyoyi na ma'adanan na iya samun darajar tattalin arziki a cikin rarrabuwar carbon saboda babban fili na ma'adinan da aka fallasa.[15]

Damuwar muhalli

gyara sashe

Ragon wutsiya zuwa tama na iya zuwa daga 90 zuwa 98% na wasu ma'adanai na jan karfe zuwa kashi 20-50% na sauran ma'adanai (marasa daraja). [16] Ma'adinan da aka ki da kuma duwatsun da aka 'yantar da su ta hanyar hakar ma'adinai da sarrafawa suna da yuwuwar lalata muhalli ta hanyar sakin karfe masu guba (arsenic da mercury sune manyan laifuffuka guda biyu), ta hanyar magudanar ruwa (yawanci ta hanyar kananan kwayoyin cuta akan sulfide ores), ko kuma ta hanyar lalata namun daji na ruwa waɗanda dogara da ruwa mai tsabta (vs suspensions). [17]

Har ila yau, tafkunan wutsiya na iya zama tushen magudanar ruwa, wanda ke haifar da bukatar kulawa ta dindindin da kuma kula da ruwan da ke wucewa ta hanyar dam din wutsiya; Kudin tsaftace ma'adinan ya kasance sau 10 fiye da kiyasin masana'antar hakar ma'adinai lokacin da magudanar ruwa ta shiga.

Bala'i

gyara sashe

Babban hatsarin tafkunan wutsiya shine gazawar madatsun ruwa, tare da gazawar da aka fi sani da ita a Amurka shine gazawar dam ɗin kwal da aka yi a Kogin Yamma na Buffalo Creek na 1972, wanda ya kashe mutane 125; Sauran rugujewar sun hada da bala'in muhalli na Ok Tedi a New Guinea, wanda ya lalata kamun kifi na kogin Ok Tedi.[18] A matsakaita, a duk duniya, ana samun babban hadari guda daya da ya shafi dam din wutsiya kowace shekara.

Sauran bala'o'in da suka haifar da gazawar dam din wutsiya sune, zubar Baia Mare cyanide na 2000 da kuma hadarin shukar Ajka alumina .

Hakkin Dan adam

gyara sashe

Adadin wutsiya yakan kasance a yankunan karkara ko kusa da al'ummomin da aka ware, kamar al'ummomin Yan asali . Ma'auni na Masana'antu na Duniya akan Gudanar da Wutsiya ya ba da shawarar cewa "ana bukatar tsarin hakkin dan adam don ganowa da magance wadanda suka fi fuskantar haɗari daga wurin wutsiya ko yuwuwar gazawarta."

Hanyoyin ajiya

gyara sashe

A tarihi, ana zubar da wutsiya ta hanyar da ta fi dacewa, kamar a cikin ruwa mai gudana ko ƙasa . Saboda damuwa game da wadannan abubuwan da ke cikin ruwa da sauran batutuwa, tafkunan wutsiya sun fara amfani da su. Kalubalen dorewa a cikin sarrafa wutsiya da dutsen sharar gida shine zubar da kayan, kamar wanda ba shi da aiki ko, in ba haka ba, tsayayye kuma yana kunshi, don rage abubuwan shigar ruwa da makamashi da sawun sharar gida da kuma matsawa zuwa gano wasu amfani. . [17]

Tailings madatsun ruwa da tafkuna

gyara sashe

An dauke su da tarkace (wani dam din dam) wadannan madatsun ruwa yawanci suna amfani da "kayan gida" ciki har da wutsiya da kansu, kuma ana iya daukar madatsun ruwa . A al'adance, zabin kawai don ajiyar wutsiya shine a magance slurry wutsiya. Wannan slurry rafi ne mai rarrafe na daskararrun wutsiya a cikin ruwa wanda aka aika zuwa wurin ajiyar wutsiya. Mai zanen wutsiya na zamani yana da kewayon samfuran wutsiya da za a zaba daga dangane da adadin ruwan da aka cire daga slurry kafin a fitar. Cire ruwa ba wai kawai zai iya haifar da tsarin ajiya mafi kyau a wasu lokuta (misali busassun tari, duba ƙasa) amma kuma yana iya taimakawa wajen dawo da ruwa wanda shine babban batu saboda yawancin ma'adanai suna cikin yankuna mara kyau. A cikin bayanin 1994 na tarkacen wutsiya, duk da haka, US EPA ta bayyana cewa hanyoyin dewatering na iya zama mai tsadar gaske sai dai a yanayi na musamman. [19] Hakanan an yi amfani da ajiyar wutsiya a cikin ruwa. [19]

Tafkunan wutsiya wurare ne na wutsiya masu hakar ma'adinai da aka ƙi inda ake zubar da kayan da ke cikin ruwa a cikin tafki don ba da damar lalata (ma'ana rabuwa) na daskararru daga ruwa. Gabaɗaya ana kama tafkin da dam, kuma an san shi da wulakanci impoundments ko wutsiya madatsar ruwa. An kiyasta a cikin 2000 cewa akwai kusan 3,500 wutsiya masu aiki a cikin duniya. [13] Ruwan da ke cikin tafki yana da dan fa'ida saboda yana rage wutsiya masu kyau daga jigilar iska zuwa wuraren da jama'a ke da yawa inda sinadarai masu guba za su iya yin hadari ga lafiyar ɗan adam; duk da haka, yana da illa ga muhalli. Tafkunan wutsiya sau da yawa suna da dan haɗari saboda suna jawo hankalin namun daji kamar tsuntsayen ruwa ko caribou kamar yadda suke zama tafki na halitta, amma suna iya zama mai guba da cutarwa ga lafiyar wadannan dabbobin. Ana amfani da tafkunan wutsiya don adana sharar da aka yi daga raba ma'adanai da duwatsu, ko slurry da ake samu daga hakar yashin kwalta. Wani lokaci ana haɗe wutsiya tare da wasu kayan kamar bentonite don samar da slurry mai kauri wanda ke jinkirta sakin ruwa mai tasiri ga muhalli.

Akwai nau'i-nau'i daban-daban na wannan hanya, ciki har da bangarorin kwari, kwararrun zobe, ramuka na cikin rami, da kuma ramuka na musamman. Mafi na kowa shine tafki na kwari, wanda ke cin gajiyar yanayin yanayin yanayin yanayi a cikin Kasa a. [19] Ana iya gina manyan madatsun ruwa na kasa sannan a cika su da wutsiya. Ana iya cika ma'adinan ramin ramin da suka gaji da wutsiya. A kowane hali, dole ne a yi la'akari da kyau game da gurbatar teburin ruwan da ke kasa, da sauran batutuwa. Dewatering wani muhimmin sashi ne na ajiyar tafki, yayin da ake kara wutsiya zuwa wurin ajiyar ruwa ana cire ruwa - yawanci ta hanyar magudanar ruwa zuwa ginin hasumiyar da ba ta da kyau. Ana iya sake amfani da ruwan da aka cire a cikin tsarin sarrafawa. Da zarar an cika wurin ajiya kuma an kammala, za a iya rufe saman da kasa kuma a fara ci gaba. Duk da haka, sai dai idan ba a yi amfani da hanyar da ba za a iya juyewa ba, ruwan da ke kutsawa cikin wurin ajiyar dole ne a ci gaba da fitar da shi zuwa gaba.[19]

Manna wutsiya

gyara sashe

Manna wutsiya shine gyare-gyare ga hanyoyin da aka saba amfani da su na zubar da wutsiya (ajiya ta tafki). Na al'ada wutsiya slurries sun hada da kananan kashi na daskararru da kuma ingantacciyar abun ciki na ruwa (yawanci daga 20% zuwa 60% daskararru don mafi yawan ma'adinan dutse) kuma lokacin da aka ajiye su a cikin tafki na wutsiya daskararrun da ruwaye sun rabu. A cikin lika wutsiya kashi dari na daskararru a cikin wutsiya slurry yana ƙaruwa ta hanyar yin amfani da masu kauri don samar da samfur inda mafi karancin rabuwa na ruwa da daskararru ya faru kuma ana adana kayan a cikin wurin ajiya azaman manna (tare da daidaito kamar haka). man goge baki). Manna wutsiya yana da fa'ida cewa ana sake yin amfani da ruwa mai yawa a cikin masana'antar sarrafa sabili da haka tsarin ya fi dacewa da ruwa fiye da wutsiya na al'ada kuma akwai yuwuwar yuwuwar zubar da ruwa. Duk da haka farashin kauri gaba daya ya fi na tailings na al'ada kuma farashin famfo don manna kuma yawanci ya fi na tailings na al'ada saboda ana bukatar famfunan kaura masu kyau don daukar wutsiya daga masana'antar sarrafa zuwa wurin ajiya. Ana amfani da lika wutsiya a wurare da dama a duniya ciki har da Dam din Rana a Yammacin Ostiraliya da Bulyanhulu Gold Minne a Tanzaniya.[20]

Dry tari

gyara sashe

Ba dole ba ne a adana wutsiya a cikin tafkuna ko a aika da shi azaman slurries cikin tekuna, koguna ko rafuka. Ana ci gaba da yin amfani da al'adar dewatering wutsiya ta amfani da matattara ko matattarar matsa lamba don haka za a iya tara wutsiya. Wannan yana ceton ruwa wanda zai iya rage tasirin muhalli dangane da raguwar yuwuwar dimbin kima, sararin samaniya da ake amfani da shi, yana barin wutsiyar cikin tsari mai karfi da kwanciyar hankali kuma yana kawar da alhaki na dogon lokaci wanda tafkuna ke barin bayan an gama hakar ma'adinai. Duk da haka ko da yake akwai yuwuwar cancantar bushewar jelar da aka tattara, waɗannan tsarin galibi suna hana tsada saboda karin kudin da ake kashewa don siye da shigar da na'urorin tacewa da haɓakar farashin aiki (yawanci hadadden wutar lantarki da kayan masarufi kamar zanen tacewa) na irin waɗannan tsarin.[21]

Adana a cikin ayyukan karkashin kasa

gyara sashe

Yayin da zubar da cikin ramukan budadden budadden gaba daya aiki ne mai sauki, zubar da cikin boye na kasa ya fi rikitarwa. Hanyar zamani ta yau da kullun ita ce hada wani adadin wutsiya tare da jigon sharar gida da siminti, kirkirar samfurin da za a iya amfani da shi don dawo da boyayyen kasa da tsayawa . Kalma gama gari don wannan shine HDPF – Babban Makallan Manna Cika. HDPF hanya ce mafi tsada ta zubar wutsiya fiye da ajiyar tafki, duk da haka yana da wasu fa'idodi da yawa - ba kawai muhalli ba amma yana iya habaka kwanciyar hankali na tonowar kasa ta hanyar samar da hanyar da za a iya watsa damuwa ta kasa a cikin boyayyiyi - maimakon samun wuce kewaye da su - wanda zai iya haifar da hakar ma'adinai haifar da girgizar kasa aukuwa irin wanda sha wahala a baya a Beaconsfield Mine Bala'i .

Wutsiyar kogin

gyara sashe

Yawancin lokaci ana kiransa RTD - zubar da wutsiya na Riverine. A mafi yawan mahalli, ba aikin ingantaccen yanayi na musamman ba, an ga an yi amfani da shi sosai a baya, wanda ke haifar da irin wannan mummunar lalacewar muhalli kamar yadda Kamfanin Ma'adinan Dutsen Lyell da Railway Company ya yi a Tasmania zuwa Kogin King, ko guba daga ma'adinan Panguna . a tsibirin Bougainville, wanda ya haifar da tarzoma mai girma a tsibirin, da kuma rufe ma'adinan na dindindin.

Tun daga shekara ta 2005, ma'adanai uku ne kawai da kamfanonin kasa da kasa ke sarrafa su sun ci gaba da amfani da zubar da kogin: Ma'adinan Ok Tedi, ma'adinan Grasberg da ma'adinan Porgera, duk a New Guinea. Ana amfani da wannan hanyar a wadannan lokuta saboda ayyukan girgizar kasa da haɗarin zaizayar kasa wadanda ke sa sauran hanyoyin zubar da su ba su da amfani kuma suna da haɗari.

Wutsiyoyi na karkashin ruwa

gyara sashe

An fi sani da STD (Submarine Tailings Disposal) ko DSTD (Deep Sea Tailings Dispoal). Za'a iya isar da Tailings ta amfani da bututun mai sannan a fitar da shi don a ƙarshe ya sauka cikin zurfin. Kusan, ba hanya ce mai kyau ba, saboda kusanci da zurfin ɗakunan ajiya yana da wuya. Lokacin da aka yi amfani da STD, zurfin fitarwa sau da yawa abin da za a yi la'akari da shi [wanda?] ba shi da zurfi, kuma lalacewar da ke cikin teku na iya haifar da shi saboda rufewa da samfurin tailings. Har ila yau yana da mahimmanci [bisa ga wanene?] don sarrafa yawanci da zafin jiki na samfurin tailings, don hana shi tafiya mai nisa, ko ma iyo zuwa farfajiya.[22]

Ana amfani da wannan hanya ta wurin hakar gwal a tsibirin Lihir ; Masana muhalli sun kalli yadda ake zubar da shara  a matsayin mai lalacewa sosai, yayin da masu mallakar ke da'awar cewa ba shi da lahani.

Physostabilisation

gyara sashe

Phytostabilisation wani nau'i ne na phytoremediation wanda ke amfani da tsire-tsire na hyperaccumulator don kwanciyar hankali na dogon lokaci da kulla wutsiya, ta hanyar lalata gurbataccen kasa a cikin ƙasa kusa da tushen. Kasancewar shukar na iya rage gurbacewar iska, ko kuma saiwar shukar na iya hana zaizayar ruwa, da hana karafa ta hanyar talla ko tarawa, da samar da wani yanki a kusa da saiwar inda karafa za ta yi hazo da daidaitawa. Abubuwan gurbatawa sun zama ƙasa da ƙasa kuma dabbobi, namun daji, da bayyanar ɗan adam yana raguwa. Wannan hanya na iya zama da amfani musamman a cikin busassun wurare, waɗanda ke ƙarƙashin iska da tarwatsa ruwa.[23]

Hanyoyi daban-daban

gyara sashe

Ana ci gaba da yin gagarumin kokari da bincike don ganowa da kuma inganta ingantattun hanyoyin zubar da wutsiya. Bincike a ma'adinan Zinariya na Porgera yana mai da hankali ne kan habaka hanyar haɗa samfuran wutsiya tare da dutsen sharar datti da laka don kirkirar samfurin da za'a iya adanawa a saman a cikin juji mai kama da jeri. Wannan zai ba da damar daina zubar da kogi a halin yanzu. Babban aiki ya rage a yi. Koyaya, an sami nasarar aiwatar da zubar da ciki ta hanyar masu kira da yawa ciki har da AMEC a, alal misali, Ma'adinan Elkview a British Columbia.

Gyara tafki ta hanyar kwayoyin cuta

gyara sashe

A lokacin da ake hako mai daga yashin mai, ana kuma samar da wutsiyoyi da suka kunshi ruwa, silt, yumbu da sauran abubuwan da suka kaushi. Wannan m zai zama balagagge lafiya wutsiya ta nauyi. Foght et al (1985) an kiyasta cewa akwai 10 3 anaerobic heterotrophs da 10 4 sulfate-rage prokaryotes a kowace millilita a cikin tafkin wutsiya, bisa ga al'ada mafi yuwuwar hanyoyin lamba. Fight ya kafa wani gwaji tare da tafkunan wutsiya guda biyu da kuma nazarin archaea, kwayoyin cuta, da iskar gas da aka fitar daga tafkunan wutsiya ya nuna cewa wadannan su ne methanogens . Yayin da zurfin ya karu, moles na CH 4 da aka saki a zahiri sun ragu. [24]

Siddique (2006, 2007) ya furta cewa methanogens a cikin tafkin wutsiya suna rayuwa kuma suna haifuwa ta hanyar lalatawar anaerobic, wanda zai rage nauyin kwayoyin halitta daga naphtha zuwa aliphatic, hydrocarbons aromatic, carbon dioxide da methane. Wadannan archaea da kwayoyin cuta na iya lalata naphtha, wanda aka yi la'akari da shi azaman sharar gida yayin aikin tace mai. Duk waɗannan samfuran da aka lalata suna da amfani. Aliphatic, aromatic hydrocarbons da methane za a iya amfani da su azaman mai a rayuwar yau da kullun na ɗan adam. A wasu kalmomi, waɗannan methanogens suna haɓaka ƙimar amfani. Bugu da ƙari, waɗannan methanogens suna canza tsarin tafkunan wutsiya kuma suna taimakawa zubar da ruwa don sake amfani da shi don sarrafa yashin mai. Saboda archaea da kwayoyin cuta suna daidaitawa kuma suna sakin kumfa a cikin wutsiya, ruwan rafi na iya shiga cikin Kasa cikin sauƙi. Tun da suna haɓaka habakar wutsiya masu girma, ana ba da damar tafkunan wutsiya su daidaita daskararrun da sauri ta yadda za a iya dawo da wut din a baya. Bugu da ƙari, ana iya amfani da ruwan da aka saki daga wutsiya a cikin hanyar tace man fetur. Rage bukatar ruwa kuma zai iya kare muhalli daga fari.[25]

Sake sarrafawa

gyara sashe

Yayin da dabarun hakar ma'adinai da farashin ma'adanai ke haɓaka, ba sabon abu ba ne don sake sarrafa wutsiya ta hanyar amfani da sabbin hanyoyin, ko kuma da kyau tare da tsoffin hanyoyin, don dawo da karin ma'adanai. Babban juji na Kalgoorlie / Boulder a Yammacin Ostiraliya an sake sarrafa su cikin riba a cikin 1990s ta KalTails Mining.[26]

An yi amfani da na'ura mai suna PET4K Processing Plant a kasashe daban-daban tsawon shekaru 20 da suka gabata don gyara gurbacewar wutsiya.[27]

Manufar kasa da kasa

gyara sashe

Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da al'ummomin kasuwanci sun habaka ka'idar kula da wutsiya ta duniya a cikin 2020 bayan mummunar gazawar dam ɗin Brumadinho . Shirin Muhalli na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (UNEP), Majalisar Kasa da Kasa kan Ma'adinai da Karfe (ICMM) da Ka'idojin Zuba Jari mai Alhaki ne suka shirya shirin.[28]

Duba kuma

gyara sashe
  • Ciwon kwal slurry
  • Noman kasa
  • Tsarin rufe ma'adana
  • Gyaran nawa
  • Tushen lalacewa
  • Yashi mai yashi wutsiya tafkuna

Manazarta

gyara sashe
  1. ↑ Nehdi, Moncef; Tariq, Amjad "Stabilization of sulphidic mine tailings for prevention of metal release and acid drainage using cementitious materials: a review" Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science (2007), 6(4), 423–436. doi:10.1139/S06-060
  2. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  3. ↑ http://www.energyjustice.net/coal/wastecoal%7C[permanent dead link]
  4. ↑ Fecko, P.; Tora, B.; Tod, M. (2013-01-01), Osborne, Dave (ed.), "3 - Coal waste: handling, pollution impacts and utilization", The Coal Handbook: Towards Cleaner Production, Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy (in Turanci), Woodhead Publishing, 2, pp. 63–84, ISBN 978-1-78242-116-0, retrieved 2020-08-02
  5. ↑ "Waste Coal | Energy Justice Network". www.energyjustice.net. Retrieved 2020-08-02.
  6. ↑ Kowalska, Arlena, et al., "VLF mapping and resistivity imaging of contaminated quaternary formations near to 'Panewniki' coal waste disposal (Southern Poland)." Acta Geodynamica et Geromaterialia, vol. 9, no. 4, 2012, p. 473+. Gale Academic OneFile, https://link-gale-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/apps/doc/A311377866/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=f0f488c8. Accessed 7 Aug. 2020.
  7. ↑ Flavelle, Christopher; Tate, Julie; Schaff, Erin (2022-03-27). "How Joe Manchin Aided Coal, and Earned Millions". The New York Times (in Turanci). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-03-28.
  8. ↑ POWER (2016-07-01). "The Coal Refuse Dilemma: Burning Coal for Environmental Benefits". POWER Magazine (in Turanci). Retrieved 2020-08-02.
  9. ↑ Dove, D.; Daniels, W.; Parrish, D. (1990). "Importance of Indigenous VAM Fungi for the Reclamation of Coal Refuse Piles". Journal American Society of Mining and Reclamation. 1990 (1): 463–468. doi:10.21000/jasmr90010463. ISSN 2328-8744.
  10. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 May 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  11. ↑ Adler, Rebecca A.; Claassen, Marius; Godfrey, Linda; Turton, Anthony R. (July 2007). "Water, mining, and waste: an historical and economic perspective on conflict management in South Africa" (PDF). The Economics of Peace and Security Journal. 2 (2). doi:10.15355/epsj.2.2.33. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  12. ↑ "Bill 14: creating a foundation for an innovative mining development model"
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 TE Martin, MP Davies. (2000). Trends in the stewardship of tailings dams.
  14. ↑ Wilson, Siobhan A. (2009). "Carbon Dioxide Fixation within Mine Wastes of Ultramafic-Hosted Ore Deposits: Examples from the Clinton Creek and Cassiar Chrysotile Deposits, Canada". Economic Geology. 104 (1): 95–112. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.104.1.95.
  15. ↑ "Global Industry Standard on Tailings Management – Global Tailings Review". globaltailingsreview.org. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-04-16.
  16. ↑ D. R. Nagaraj "Minerals Recovery and Processing" in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Wiley-VCH doi:10.1002/0471238961.1309140514010701.a01.pub2
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Franks, DM, Boger, DV, Côte, CM, Mulligan, DR. 2011. Sustainable Development Principles for the Disposal of Mining and Mineral Processing Wastes. Resources Policy. Vol. 36. No. 2. pp 114–122
  18. ↑ Jared Diamond (2005). Collapse. Penguin. ISBN 9780143036555., page 452–458
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 US EPA. (1994). Technical Report: Design and Evaluation of Tailings Dams Archived 10 Mayu 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
  20. ↑ Theriault, J. A.; Frostiak, J.; Welch, D., Surface Disposal of Paste Tailings at the Bulyanhulu Gold Mine, Tanzania
  21. ↑ Samfuri:Cite conference
  22. ↑ Association, California Mining (1991). Mine waste management. Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers. ISBN 9780873717465.
  23. ↑ Mendez MO, Maier RM (2008). "Phytostabilization of Mine Tailings in Arid and Semiarid Environments—An Emerging Remediation Technology". Environ Health Perspect. 116 (3): 278–83. doi:10.1289/ehp.10608. PMC 2265025. PMID 18335091.
  24. ↑ Foght, J.M., Fedorak, P.M., Westlake, D.W.S., and Boerger, H.J. 1985. Microbial content and metabolic activities in the Syncrude tailings pond. AOSTRA J. Res. 1: 139–146.
  25. ↑ Holowenko, F.M.; MacKinnon, M.D.; Fedorak, P.M. (2000). "Methanogens and sulfate-reducing bacteria in oil sands fine tailings waste". Can. J. Microbiol. 46 (10): 927–937. doi:10.1139/cjm-46-10-927. PMID 11068680.
  26. ↑ J.Engels & D.Dixon-Hardy. "Kaltails project, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia". Archived from the original on 24 January 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
  27. ↑ Smith, Mike (2017-09-25). "Can African machine produce a promising future in Butte?". Missoulian (in Turanci). Retrieved 2017-09-25.
  28. ↑ "Mining industry releases first standard to improve safety of waste storage". Mongabay Environmental News (in Turanci). 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2021-04-16.
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ramin_hakar_ma%27adinai&oldid=502561"