Pre-Columbian era
A cikin tarihin Amurka, Pre-Columbian era ya samo ne daga asalin yankin Arewa da Kudancin Amirka a cikin zamanin Paleolithic na Upper ta hanyar mulkin mallaka na Turai, wanda ya fara da balaguron Christopher Columbus na 1492. Yawancin lokaci, zamanin yana rufe tarihin al'adun 'yan asalin har sai da gagarumin tasiri daga Turawa. Wannan na iya faruwa shekaru da yawa ko ma ƙarni bayan Columbus da wasu al'adu.
 Pre-Columbian era | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
era (en)  da archaeological period (en) | ||||
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| Bayanai | ||||
| Ƙaramin ɓangare na | Wayewa | |||
| Lokacin farawa | 48 millennium "BCE" | |||
| Lokacin gamawa | 1492 | |||
| Karatun ta |
Pre-Columbian studies (en) | |||
| Wuri | ||||
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Yawancin civilizations da ta kasance kafin Colombia an sami alamar matsuguni na dindindin, birane, aikin gona, gine-ginen jama'a da manyan gine-gine, manyan ayyukan ƙasa, da complex societal hierarchies. Wasu daga cikin waɗannan civilization sun daɗe suna shuɗewa a lokacin mulkin mallaka na farko na Turai (c. ƙarshen 16th–farkon ƙarni na 17), kuma an san su ne kawai ta hanyar binciken kayan tarihi da tarihin baka.[1] Sauran civilizatios sun yi zamani da lokacin mulkin mallaka kuma an kwatanta su a cikin tarihin Turai na lokacin. Wasu kaɗan, irin su Maya civilization, suna da nasu rubuce-rubucen. Domin Kiristoci da yawa na Turawa na lokacin suna kallon irin waɗannan nassosi a matsayin arna, maza kamar Diego de Landa sun ƙone su, ko da suna neman adana tarihin asali. Wasu boyayyun takardu ne kawai suka tsira a cikin yarukansu na asali, yayin da wasu an rubuta su ko kuma aka rubuta su cikin Sipaniya, suna ba wa masana tarihi na zamani hangen nesa da al'adu da ilimi na dā.
Yawancin ƴan asalin ƙasar Amirka na ci gaba da al'adun gargajiya yayin da suke tasowa da kuma dacewa da duniyar zamani.
Hakanan ana amfani da madadin kalmomin precontact, precolonial, ko prehistoric Americas; a cikin Amurka na Hispanic, kalmar da aka saba shine pre-Hispanic; a Brazil, kalmar da aka yi amfani da ita ita ce pre-Cabraline.
Tarihi
gyara sasheKafin bunƙasa ilimin kimiya na kayan tarihi a ƙarni na 19, masana tarihi na zamanin kafin Colombia sun fi fassara tarihin mamaya na Turai da kuma bayanan matafiya na farko na Turai da kayan tarihi. Sai a karni na goma sha tara aikin mutane irin su John Lloyd Stephens da Eduard Seler da Alfred P. Maudslay da cibiyoyi irin su Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology na Jami'ar Harvard, ya kai ga sake yin nazari da suka game da binciken. farkon tushen Turai. Yanzu, binciken masana na al'adun pre-Columbian galibi yana dogara ne akan hanyoyin kimiyya da dabaru iri-iri.[2]
Genetics
gyara sashe
Haplogroup da aka fi dangantawa da kwayoyin halitta na Indigenous shine Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA).[3] Masu bincike sun sami shaidar kwayoyin halitta cewa Q1a3a haplogroup ya kasance a Kudancin Amirka tun aƙalla 18,000 BY-DNA, kamar mtDNA, ya bambanta da sauran ƙwayoyin chromosomes na nukiliya a cikin cewa yawancin Y-chromosome na musamman ne kuma baya sake haɗuwa a lokacin meiosis.[4] Wannan yana da tasirin cewa za'a iya nazarin tsarin tarihin maye gurbi cikin sauƙi. Tsarin ya nuna cewa 'yan asalin ƙasar sun fuskanci sassa biyu na musamman na kwayoyin halitta: na farko tare da mutanen farko na Amurka da na biyu tare da mulkin mallaka na Turai na Amurka. Tsohuwar ita ce abin da ke tabbatar da adadin zuriyar halitta da kuma kafuwar haplotypes da ake samu a cikin ƴan asali na yau.
Matsalolin ɗan adam na Amurka ya faru a matakai daga layin bakin tekun Bering, tare da farkon shekaru 20,000 akan Beringia don kafuwar yawan jama'a. Bambancin ƙananan tauraron dan adam da rarraba zuriyar Y musamman ga Kudancin Amurka yana nuna cewa an ware wasu al'ummar Amerindiya tun lokacin da yankin ya fara mulkin mallaka. Na-Dené, Inuit da Indigenous Alaska Alaska suna nuna haplogroup Q-M242 (Y-DNA) maye gurbi, duk da haka, kuma sun bambanta da sauran 'yan asalin da ke da maye gurbin mtDNA daban-daban. Wannan yana nuna cewa farkon bakin hauren zuwa arewacin Amurka ta Arewa da Greenland sun samo asali ne daga al'ummomin da suka biyo baya.
Manazarta
gyara sashe- ↑ "Early European Settlements in North America". Tripline. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
- ↑ Bernal, Ignition (1980). A History of Mexican Archaeology: The Vanished Civilizations of Middle America. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-5007-8008-4.
- ↑ Bortolini, Maria-Catira; Salzano, Francisco M.; Thomas, Mark G.; et al. (September 2003). "Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas". American Journal of Human Genetics. 73 (3): 524–539. doi:10.1086/377588. PMC 1180678. PMID 12900798.
- ↑ Sepúlveda, Paz; et al. (2022). "Human Y chromosome sequences from Q Haplogroup reveal a South American settlement pre-18,000 years ago and a profound genomic impact during the Younger Dryas". PLOS ONE. 17 (8): e0271971. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0271971. PMC 9385064. PMID 35976870.