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Right to quiet enjoyment

Bacin rai (daga tsohuwa nocence, ta hanyar Fr. surutu, damuwa, daga Lat. nocere, "don cutarwa") azabtarwa ce ta gama gari. Yana nufin abin da ke haifar da laifi, bacin rai, matsala ko rauni. Abin damuwa na iya zama na jama'a (kuma "na kowa") ko na sirri. Wani masani dan kasar Ingila, Sir JF Stephen, ya bayyana rashin jin dadin jama'a da cewa,

Right to quiet enjoyment
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Ƙaramin ɓangare na tort (en) Fassara
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Right to quiet enjoyment

"Aikin da doka ba ta ba da lamuni ba, ko kuma tauye wani aiki na shari'a, wanda yin aiki ko tsallakewa ya kawo cikas ko haifar da matsala ko lalacewa ga jama'a wajen aiwatar da haƙƙoƙin gama gari ga duk abin da Mai Martaba ta yi." [1]

Right to quiet enjoyment

Rashin hankali shine tsoma baki tare da haƙƙin takamaiman mutane. Tashin hankali ɗaya ne daga cikin tsoffin abubuwan da ke haifar da aiki da aka sani ga doka ta gama gari, tare da shari'o'in da aka tsara cikin ɓarna suna komawa kusan farkon dokar shari'ar da aka yi rikodi. Rashin damuwa yana nuna cewa "haƙƙin jin daɗi na shiru" ana rushewa har zuwa wani mataki na azabtarwa .

Ma'anarsa

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Right to quiet enjoyment

A ƙarƙashin dokar gama-gari, mutanen da ke mallakin kadarorin (masu mallakar filaye, masu ba da haya da sauransu) suna da haƙƙin jin daɗin ƙasarsu cikin natsuwa . Koyaya wannan baya haɗa da baƙi ko waɗanda ba a ɗauka suna da sha'awar ƙasar ba. Idan maƙwabci ya tsoma baki tare da wannan jin daɗin natsuwa, ko dai ta hanyar haifar da ƙamshi, sautuna, gurɓatacce ko duk wani haɗari da ya wuce iyakokin kadarorin, wanda abin ya shafa na iya yin da'awar cikin ɓarna.

A bisa doka, ana amfani da kalmar ɓarna a al'adance ta hanyoyi uku, su ne kamar haka:

  1. don bayyana wani aiki ko yanayin da ke da cutarwa ko ban haushi ga wasu (misali, hali mara kyau, tarin shara ko bututun hayaƙi)
  2. don bayyana cutar da aikin da aka ambata a baya (misali, ƙara mai ƙarfi ko ƙamshi mara kyau)
  3. don bayyana wani alhaki na shari'a wanda ya taso daga haɗuwa da biyun. [2] Sai dai kuma “tsangwama” ba wai sakamakon wani makwabci ne ya saci filaye ba ko kuma ya keta kasar. Maimakon haka, ya taso ne daga abubuwan da suke faruwa a ƙasar wani da suka shafi jin daɗin ƙasar. [3]

An ƙirƙiro dokar tada hankali ne don dakatar da irin wadannan ayyuka masu tayar da hankali ko aikatawa yayin da suka shiga tsakani ba tare da dalili ba ko dai da haƙƙin wasu masu zaman kansu (watau ɓarna na sirri) ko kuma haƙƙin jama'a (watau cutar da jama'a ).

Tashin hankalin jama'a shi ne tsoma bakin da bai dace ba ga 'yancin mallakar jama'a. Ya haɗa da ɗabi'a da ke dagula lafiyar jama'a, aminci, zaman lafiya ko jin daɗi. Rashin hankali na iya zama shaida ta ƙa'ida, ko kuma ta yanayin aikin, gami da tsawon lokacin, da yadda mummunan tasirin aikin zai iya zama. [4]

Rikicin sirri ya taso ne daga matakin da aka ɗauka kan lamarin kuma yana kare haƙƙin mutum na amfani da jin daɗin ƙasarsu. [5] Ba ya haɗa da keta doka. [6]

Don zama abin tashin hankali, matakin tsangwama dole ne ya tashi sama da abin ado kawai. Misali: idan makwabcinku ya yi wa gidansu fenti, yana iya ɓata miki rai; duk da haka, ba ya tashi zuwa matakin tashin hankali. A mafi yawan lokuta, amfani na yau da kullun na kadarorin da zai iya zama jin daɗin shiru ba za a iya hana shi cikin ɓarna ko ɗaya ba. Misali, sautin jariri na kuka na iya zama mai ban haushi, amma wani sashe ne da ake tsammani na jin daɗin kadarorin cikin nutsuwa kuma baya zama abin damuwa.[ana buƙatar hujja]Rashin hankali ya bambanta tsakanin lamuran da zargin ya haifar da lahani ga dukiya da kuma lokuta inda ya haifar da "rashin jin daɗi na sirri".

Duk mai mallakar kadarorin da abin ya shafa yana da tsayawa ya kai kara don wata matsala ta sirri. Idan hargitsi ya yadu sosai, amma duk da haka yana da manufa ta jama'a, galibi ana ɗaukar shi a doka azaman ɓarna ce ta jama'a. Masu bukatu a cikin kadarori na gaske (ko masu mallaka, masu haya, ko masu riƙe da wani sauƙi ko wasu sha'awa) suna tsaye ne kawai don kawo ƙarar ɓarna na sirri. A cewar Oldham v Lawson (inda aka ɗauka cewa miji yana da lasisi kawai kuma ba shi da wani take da zai kai ƙara yayin da matarsa a matsayin mai ita ke da take da ƙara) kuma wasu lokuta daga baya, mallaka keɓaɓɓen ya zama dole don kafa shari'ar ɓarna ta sirri. . Koyaya, yanayi ɗaya da ke da alaƙa da canza ɓarna mai zaman kansa akan ƙasa zuwa ɗaya akan mutum.

Tarihi da ci gaban doka

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A ƙarshen ƙarni na 19 zuwa farkon ƙarni na 20, dokar tada zaune tsaye ta zama da wahala a iya gudanar da ita, saboda amfani da kadarorin da ake gwabzawa sau da yawa yana haifar da dagula ga juna, kuma kudin da ake kashewa don daidaita batun ya karu. Don haka, mafi yawan hukunce-hukuncen yanzu suna da tsarin yin amfani da ƙasa (misali yanki ) wanda ke bayyana ayyukan da aka yarda da su a wurin da aka ba su. Shiyya-shiyya gaba ɗaya yana kawar da ɓarna. Misali: idan masana'anta ke aiki a yankin masana'antu, maƙwabta a yankin maƙwabta ba za su iya yin da'awar ɓarna ba. Hukunce-hukuncen ba tare da dokokin yanki da gaske suna barin amfani da ƙasa don tantancewa ta hanyar dokokin da suka shafi tashin hankali.

Hakazalika, dokokin muhalli na zamani, sun kasance suna daidaita koyarwar ɓarna ga al’ummomin zamani masu rikitarwa, ta yadda mutum zai yi amfani da dukiyarsa na iya yin illa ga dukiyar wani, ko kuma wani mutum,

Magunguna

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A ƙarƙashin dokar gama-gari, magani ɗaya tilo na ɓarna shine biyan diyya . Koyaya, tare da haɓaka kotunan ãdalci, maganin umarnin ya zama samuwa don hana wanda ake tuhuma sake maimaita aikin da ya haifar da tashin hankali, da kuma ƙayyade hukuncin raini idan wanda ake tuhuma ya saɓa wa irin wannan umarnin.

Ƙungiyoyin doka da tattalin arziki sun shiga cikin nazarin mafi kyawun zaɓi na magunguna idan aka yi la'akari da halin da ake ciki. A cikin Boomer v. Kamfanin Atlantic Cement Co. Kamfanin siminti ya tsoma baki tare da maƙwabta da dama, duk da haka farashin biyan cikakken umarnin zai kasance fiye da ƙimar gaskiya na farashi ga masu gabatar da ƙara na ci gaba. Kotun New York ta ƙyale mai siminti ya 'sayan' umarnin don ƙayyadadden adadin—lala ta dindindin. A ƙa'ida, adadin lalacewa na dindindin ya kamata ya zama ƙimar da ake ciki yanzu na duk ɓarnar da mai ƙara ya fuskanta a gaba.

Inspector na Cututtuka

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Wani Inspector na Nuisances shine taken ofishi a cikin yankuna masu magana da Ingilishi da yawa. A cikin hukunce-hukuncen da yawa wannan kalmar yanzu ta zama tarihi, matsayi da/ko wasu sun maye gurbinsu. A cikin tsakiyar Ingila, ofishin Kotuna Leet ne kuma daga baya kuma ofishin parochial ne wanda ke da alhakin aiwatar da ayyukan gida da yawa a kan ''lalata'' a ƙarƙashin dokar gama gari: toshewar babbar hanya, gurɓataccen rijiyoyi, abinci mara kyau, hayaki, hayaniya., tarin wari, sauraran kunne, leƙen asiri, halayen lalata, da sauran su. A cikin Burtaniya daga tsakiyar karni na 19 wannan ofishin ya kasance yana da alaƙa da magance matsalolin kiwon lafiyar jama'a da tsaftar muhalli,

Inspector na farko na Nuisances wanda kwamitin kula da lafiya na karamar hukumar Burtaniya ya nada shi ne Thomas Fresh a Liverpool a shekara ta 1844. Daga baya Liverpool ta haɓaka wata doka mai zaman kanta, Dokar Sanatory ta Liverpool ta 1846, wacce ta ƙirƙiri wani madaidaicin matsayi na Inspector of Nuisances. [7] Wannan ya zama abin koyi ga dokokin gida da na ƙasa daga baya. A cikin ƙananan hukumomi waɗanda suka kafa Hukumar Lafiya a ƙarƙashin Dokar Kiwon Lafiyar Jama'a ta 1848, ko kuma a ƙarƙashin Ayyukan gida da ke aiwatar da Dokar Cigaban Garuruwa na shekara ta 1847, taken shine 'Inspector of Nuisances'. Dokar Kawar da Cututtuka da Cututtuka ta 1855 da Dokar Gudanarwa ta Metropolis 1855 (ta hanyar sashe na 134) sun ba da umarnin irin wannan ofishin amma tare da taken 'Sufeto Tsafta'. Don haka a wasu wuraren taken shi ne 'Sanitary Inspector' wasu kuma 'Inspector of Nuisances'. Daga ƙarshe an daidaita take a duk ƙananan hukumomin Burtaniya a matsayin 'Inspector Sanitary'. Dokar Majalisa a shekara ta 1956 ta canza take zuwa 'Sufeto Lafiyar Jama'a'. An kafa irin waɗannan ofisoshi a cikin Ƙasar Commonwealth da Masarautar Burtaniya.

Mafi kusa na zamani dai-dai da wannan matsayi a Burtaniya shine Jami'in Kiwon Lafiyar Muhalli . Wannan laƙabi n da ƙananan hukumomi ke ɗauka bisa shawarar gwamnatin tsakiya bayan dokar ƙaramar hukuma ta 1972 . A yau, Jami'an Kiwon Lafiyar Muhalli na Burtaniya masu rijista da ke aiki a cikin ayyukan da ba na tilastawa ba (misali a cikin kamfanoni masu zaman kansu) na iya gwammace yin amfani da jumlar kalmar 'Ma'aikacin Kiwon Lafiyar Muhalli'.

A cikin New South Wales Dokar Kiwon Lafiyar Jama'a ta NSW 1896 ta ba Hukumar Lafiya ta NSW ikon kafa 'ma'auni na ƙarfi da tsabta don abubuwan amfani gabaɗaya', don naɗa manazarta, da kuma 'sasa a yi irin waɗannan tambayoyin kamar yadda take ganin dacewa a ciki. dangane da duk wani lamari da ya shafi lafiyar jama'a'. Sufeto a karkashin sabuwar dokar an san su da Inspectors of Nuisances, amma daga baya aka sake masa suna 'masu duba tsafta'.

A cikin Amurka, misali na zamani na jami'in da ke da taken 'Sufeto na Nuisances' amma ba aikin kiwon lafiyar jama'a ana samunsa a Sashe na 3767[7] na Kundin Tsarin Gyaran Ohio wanda ke bayyana irin wannan matsayi don bincika abubuwan da ba su da kyau, inda wannan kalmar a fili ya rufe wuraren da ake samun lalata da barasa. Ganin cewa a cikin Amurka aikin jami'in kula da muhalli yana gudana daga jami'an ƙananan hukumomi masu lakabin 'Masanin Kiwon Lafiyar Muhalli mai Rijista' ko 'Mai Rijistar Sanitarian' ya danganta da Iƙon.

Doka mai alaƙa da tashin hankali, ta ƙasa

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Ingila

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Iyakoki na azabtarwa ba su da tabbas, saboda rarrabuwar kawuna na jama'a/na zaman kansu, da wanzuwar doka a Rylands v Fletcher . Marubuta irin su John Murphy a Jami'ar Lancaster sun ba da ra'ayin cewa Rylands ya samar da wani dabam, ko da yake yana da alaƙa, azabtarwa. Wannan har yanzu batu ne don muhawara, kuma wasu sun ƙi (bambanci na farko a Rylands ya shafi 'tsauke zuwa ƙasa', don haka ana iya jayayya cewa kawai bambanci shine yanayin rashin tausayi,

A ƙarƙashin dokar Ingilishi, ba kamar dokar Amurka ba, ba tsaro ba ne cewa mai da'awar "ya zo ga tashin hankali": shari'ar 1879 na Sturges v Bridgman har yanzu doka ce mai kyau, kuma sabon mai shi zai iya kawo da'awar rashin jin daɗi ga ayyukan da ake ciki. makwabci. A cikin Fabrairun shekara ta 2014 hukuncin Kotun Koli na Burtaniya game da shari'ar Coventry v Lawrence ya sa aka ƙaddamar da kamfen [8]

Amurka

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Wataƙila babu wani daji da ba za a iya shiga ba a cikin dukan doka fiye da abin da ke kewaye da kalmar 'rashin hankali'. Yana nufin komai ga kowa da kowa, kuma an yi amfani da shi ba tare da nuna bambanci ba ga komai daga tallace-tallace mai ban tsoro zuwa kyankyasai da aka gasa a cikin kek. Akwai yarjejeniya gabaɗaya cewa ba ta da ikon kowane ma'ana ko cikakkiyar ma'ana.

Jihohi da yawa suna da ƙayyadaddun lokuta inda za a iya kawo da'awar rashin lafiya. Irin wannan ƙuntatawa sau da yawa yakan zama dole saboda hankalin mazauna birni yana jin daɗin ƙamshin sharar gona lokacin da suka ƙaura zuwa yankunan karkara. Misali: Jihohi da larduna da yawa suna da tanadi na "haƙƙin noma", wanda ke ba da damar kowane amfanin gona na yanki ko kuma a tarihi ana amfani da shi don noma .

Akwai nau'o'in ɓarna guda biyu a ƙarƙashin dokar Amurka: damuwa a zahiri, ko "lalata kowane haɗari", da kuma ɓarna kowane . Rarraba yana ƙayyade ko da'awar ta tafi ga alkali, ko kuma alkali ya yanke hukunci. Abin da ake zargi a haƙiƙa wani lamari ne na gaskiya wanda alkalai za su tantance ko abin (ko abin da ake magana a kai) ya haifar da ɓarna, ta hanyar nazarin wurinsa da kewayensa, yanayinsa, da sauran yanayi. [9] Ƙaddamar da cewa wani abu na da ban tsoro a haƙiƙanin gaskiya kuma yana buƙatar shaidar aikin da sakamakonsa. [9]

Saɓanin haka, abin damuwa a kowane ɗayan shine "aiki, ko aiki, tsari, kayan aiki, ko sana'a wanda ke da damuwa a kowane lokaci kuma a kowane yanayi, ba tare da la'akari da wuri ko kewaye ba." [10] Alhaki ga wani tashin hankali kowane daya ne cikakkiya, da kuma rauni ga jama'a ana zaton; idan aka yi zargin samuwarsa kuma aka kafa ta bisa hujja, kuma an kafa ta ne a matsayin doka. [11]

Yawancin da'awar tashin hankali na zargin wani tashin hankali a zahiri, saboda sauƙaƙan dalilin da ya sa ba a yi la'akari da ayyuka da yawa ko tsari a matsayin ɓarna ba. Gabaɗaya, idan wani aiki, ko amfani da dukiya, halal ne, ko izini daga mai iko, ba zai iya zama ɓarna ba . [12] Maimakon haka, aikin da ake magana akai dole ne ko dai a ayyana shi ta hanyar dokar jama'a, ko kuma ta hanyar shari'a, don zama ɓarna a kowane ɗayan. [13] Akwai ƴan ƙa'idodin jiha ko tarayya ko dokar shari'a da ke ayyana ayyuka ko tsari don zama damun su da kansu. Kadan ayyuka ko tsari, a ciki da na kansu da kuma ƙarƙashin kowane yanayi, suna da ban tsoro; wanda shine yadda kotuna ke tantance ko wani aiki ko tsari yana da matsala ko a'a. [14]

A cikin shekara ta 1000 da suka gabata, hukumomin gwamnati sun yi amfani da hargitsin jama'a don dakatar da ayyukan da aka yi la'akari da su a matsayin babban laifi, saboda, ko da yake ba bisa ka'ida ba, an dauke shi rashin ma'ana idan aka yi la'akari da yiwuwar cutar da wani a cikin jama'a. Donald Gifford [15] yayi jayayya cewa alhaki na farar hula ya kasance koyaushe "al'amari mai aukuwa na ɓarna jama'a". [16] A al'adance, aikin da aka yi ya haɗa da toshe hanyar jama'a, zubar da najasa a cikin kogin jama'a ko kuma fashewar sitiriyo a wurin shakatawa na jama'a. [17] Don dakatar da wannan nau'in hali, gwamnatoci sun nemi umarni ko dai su ba da umarni ga ayyukan da suka haifar da tashin hankali ko kuma suna buƙatar wanda ke da alhakin rage matsalar.

A cikin 'yan shekarun nan, duk da haka, gwamnatoci sun ɓata layin tsakanin jama'a da masu zaman kansu musabbabin yin aiki. William Prosser ya lura da haka a cikin shekara ta 1966 kuma ya gargaɗi kotu da malamai game da ruɗani da haɗa ƙa'idodin ƙa'idodi guda biyu. A wasu jihohin, gargadin nasa bai taka kara ya karya ba, sannan wasu kotuna da ‘yan majalisa sun ƙirƙiro wasu ma’anoni da ba su dace ba don bayyana abin da ke damun jama’a. Misali, Kotun Koli ta Florida ta yanke hukuncin cewa tada hankalin jama'a shine duk wani abu da ke haifar da "bacin rai ga al'umma ko cutar da lafiyar jama'a."

Misali na zamani na dokar tada hankali a Amurka shine Dokar Mataki na 40 na Amherst, Massachusetts da aka sani da Dokar Gidan Nuisance. 'Yan garin ne ke kada kuri'a a kan dokar a taron gari. Manufar kafa irin wannan dokar ita ce, "Kamar yadda Hukumar Kula da Gida ta garin Amherst ta tanada, da kuma kare lafiya, lafiya, da jin dadin mazauna Garin, wannan dokar za ta ba wa Garin damar dora alhakinsa ga masu shi da sauran su. wadanda ke da alhakin musgunawa da cutarwa da hayaniya da tarukan rashin da'a ke haifarwa a kan kadarorin masu zaman kansu kuma za su hana shan barasa da ƙananan yara ke yi a irin wannan taron."

A aikace, dokar tana aiki ne ta yadda idan wani dan unguwar ya ji cewa akwai hayaniyar makwabcin yana da ban haushi ko kuma ya wuce gona da iri, sai a umarci makwabcin ya sanar da ’yan sandan garin domin su amsa inda hayaniya ta tashi. “Jami’in da ya amsa yana da ‘yancin yadda zai tunkari karar hayaniya. . . . Yayin da jami’in ke tantance martanin da ya dace, na iya yin la’akari da abubuwa da yawa, kamar tsananin hayaniyar, lokacin rana, ko an riga an gargaɗi mazauna wurin, da haɗin gwiwar mazauna wurin don magance matsalar.” [18]

Hakanan ana amfani da kalmar ƙasa da ƙa'ida a cikin Amurka don bayyana yanayin rashin fa'ida na ƙarar ƙarar . Ana iya siffanta karar da “kati mai cutarwa”, da kuma sasantawa a matsayin “matsala maras kyau”, idan wanda ake kara ya biya kudi ga wanda ake kara don ya janye karar da farko don ya rage kuɗin ƙarar, maimakon saboda ƙarar za ta sami gagarumin tasiri. yuwuwar cin nasara.

Rashin muhalli

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A fannin kimiyyar muhalli, akwai al'amura da dama da dokar ta dauka na damun su, wadanda suka haɗa da hayaniya, ruwa da gurbacewar haske. Haka kuma akwai wasu batutuwan da ba lallai ba ne lamurra na shari’a da ake kira gurgunta muhalli; alal misali, yawan adadin kwari ko wasu ƙwayoyin cuta ana iya kiransa "yawan tashin hankali" a ma'anar muhalli. [19]

Dangane da ƙararrakin gurɓata muhalli, da wuya wani ya yi nasara a wannan fanni saboda tsayuwar bukatun sirri da jama'a. Ra'ayin Kotu ne ya kamata doka ta tsara wannan yanki. [20]

Musamman, a Ostiraliya, duk hukunce-hukuncen suna da irin wannan irin doka.

Daga Britannica 1911

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Laifin gama gari yana da hukunci a matsayin laifi a dokar gama gari, inda ba a yi wani tanadi na musamman ta hanyar doka ba. A zamanin yau, yawancin tsofaffin abubuwan da suka shafi dokokin gama gari sun kasance batun doka. Ba abin karewa ba ne ga maigida ko ma’aikacin cewa abin da bayinsa ke aikatawa ya haifar da wata matsala, idan irin wadannan ayyukan ba su kai ga aikinsu ba, duk da cewa ana yin haka ne ba tare da saninsa ba, sabanin umarninsa. Haka kuma ba tsaro ba ne cewa hargitsin ya kasance na tsawon lokaci mai yawa, domin babu wani rabewar lokaci da zai halasta cutar da jama’a. [21]

Keɓancewar sirri wani aiki ne, ko tsallakewa, wanda ke haifar da wahala ko lalacewa ga mutum mai zaman kansa, kuma an bar shi a gyara ta hanyar aiki. Dole ne a sami ɗan rage hankali na waɗannan haƙƙoƙin da ke shafar ƙima ko dacewar kadarorin. "Tambaya ta gaske a cikin dukkan lamura ita ce tambayar gaskiya, ko bacin rai kamar na zahiri ne don tsoma baki tare da jin daɗin rayuwar ɗan adam." ( Lord Romilly a Crump v. Lambert (1867) LR 3 Eq. 409). Damuwa mai zaman kansa, wanda ya bambanta ta wannan bangaren da tabarbarewar jama'a, ana iya halatta shi ta amfani da shi ba tare da katsewa ba har tsawon shekaru ashirin. A da ana tunanin cewa, idan mutum ya san akwai wata matsala ya je ya zauna kusa da ita, ba zai iya warkewa ba, domin an ce, shi ne ke zuwa ga masifa, ba cutar da shi ba. Amma wannan ya daɗe ya daina zama doka, dangane da duka magani ta hanyar lalacewa, da magani ta hanyar umarni. [21]

Maganin cutar da jama'a shine ta hanyar bayanai, tuhuma, taƙaitaccen tsari ko ragewa. Bayani ya ta'allaka ne a cikin al'amuran da ke da mahimmancin jama'a, kamar toshewar kogin da za a iya kewayawa ta hanyar madogara. A wasu al’amura kuma, doka ta ba jam’iyya damar daukar maganin a hannunsa, da kuma “kashe” matsalolin da suke fuskanta. Don haka; idan aka sa wata ƙofa a kan babbar hanya, duk wanda ke amfani da babbar hanyar bisa ƙa'ida zai iya kawar da cikas, in dai ba a samu wata matsala ba. Maganin ɓarna mai zaman kansa shine ta umarni, mataki don lalacewa ko ragewa. Aiki ya ta'allaka ne a kowane hali don ɓarna na sirri; ya kuma ta’allaka ne a inda abin ke damun jama’a, matukar dai mai kara zai iya tabbatar da cewa ya samu wani rauni na musamman. A irin wannan yanayin, farar hula ƙari ne ga maganin laifuka. A cikin kawar da ɓarna na sirri, dole ne a kula da kada a yi ɓarna fiye da yadda ya kamata don kawar da damuwa. [21]

A Scotland, babu wani bambanci tsakanin ɓarna na jama'a da masu zaman kansu. Doka game da abin da ya ƙunshi tashin hankali dai-dai yake da na Ingila. Za a sami jerin abubuwan da suka shafi doka a cikin Dokar Kiwon Lafiyar Jama'a (Scotland) Dokar 1867, da ayyukan gyara. Maganin tashin hankali shine ta hanyar tsangwama, ko aiki. [21]

Duba kuma

gyara sashe
  • Maganar Aldred
  • Haslem v. Lockwood
  • Doka
  • Sakaci
  • Laifin odar jama'a
  • Robinson da Kilvert
  • Rylands v. Fletcher
  • Dokar gallazawa
  • William L. Prosser

Manazarta

gyara sashe
  1. ↑ Sir J. F. Stephen, Digest of the Criminal Law, p.120
  2. ↑ Restatement (Second) of Torts § 821A cmt. b (1979). Originally developed as a private tort tied to the land, a nuisance action was generally brought when a person interfered with another's "use or enjoyment of land."
  3. ↑ "Latest Movies. Prosser, Private Action for Public Nuisance, 52 Va. L. Rev. 997, 997 (1966)"[permanent dead link].
  4. ↑ Restatement (Second) of Torts § 821B
  5. ↑ Sappideen, C (Carolyn), Torts: Commentary and Materials (Thomson Reuters (Professional) Australia Limited, 12 ed, 2016) 771.
  6. ↑ Restatement (Second) of Torts § 821D
  7. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Parkinson, Norman
  8. ↑ http://www.steamin.in/RDC/Petition.htm
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 City of Sunland Park v. Harris News, Inc., 2005-NMCA-128, 45, 124 P.3d 566, 138 N.M. 58 (citing 58 AM.JUR.2D Nuisances § 21)
  10. ↑ Id. 40 (citing State ex rel. Village of Los Ranchos v. City of Albuquerque, 119 N.M. 150, 164, 889 P.2d 185, 199 (1994))
  11. ↑ See 58 AM.JUR.2D Nuisances § 21
  12. ↑ See 58 AM.JUR.2D Nuisances § 20
  13. ↑ State v. Davis, 65 N.M. 128, 132, 333 P.2d 613, 616 (1958); See also Sunland Park, 2005-NMCA-128, 47
  14. ↑ Koeber, 72 N.M. at 5, 380 P.2d at 16.
  15. ↑ "Donald G. Gifford" Archived 2009-02-01 at the Wayback Machine, Research Professor of Law at the University of Maryland School of Law
  16. ↑ Donald G. Gifford, Public Nuisance as a Mass Products Liability Tort, 71 U. Cin. L. Rev. 741, 781 (2003)
  17. ↑ Restatement (Second) of Torts § 821A cmt. b (1979)
  18. ↑ "Kwafin ajiya". Archived from the original on 2011-11-14. Retrieved 2022-03-15.
  19. ↑ C. Michael Hogan, ed. 2010. American Kestrel. Encyclopedia of Earth, U.S. National Council for Science and the Environment, Ed-in-chief C. Cleveland
  20. ↑ Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Collieries Plc [1994] 1 All ER 53, 57
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Chisholm 1911.
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Hanyoyin haɗi na waje

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