Wikipedia

Kurkuku na mata a Amurka

Kurkuku na mata a Amurka yana nufin ɗaurin mata a cikin kurkuku da kurkuku a Amurka. Akwai kimanin mata 219,000 da aka tsare a Amurka bisa ga rahoton Nuwamban shekarar 2018 na Hukumar Kula da Kurkuku, [1] kuma yawan tsare mata a Amurka yana da tarihi da kuma duniya, tare da mata 133 a wuraren gyarawa ga kowane 'yan ƙasa mata 100,000. Amurka tana da kashi 4% kawai na yawan mata na duniya, duk da haka Amurka tana da alhakin kashi 33% na yawan mata da ke kurkuku a duniya.[2] Haɓakawar yawan mata da aka tsare a Amurka yana da alaƙa da tarihin rikitarwa na yaki da kwayoyi da kuma masana'antar kurkuku ta Amurka, wanda ke haifar da ɗaurin kurkuku tsakanin yawancin jama'a, amma yana da tasiri sosai ga mata musamman mata da mata masu launin fata.[3] Koyaya, mata sun kasance kawai 10.4% na yawan fursunoni da kurkuku na Amurka, tun daga shekarar 2015. [4][5]

Kurkuku na mata a Amurka
aspect in a geographic region (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙasa Tarayyar Amurka
Wuri
Map
 39°49′41″N 98°34′46″W / 39.828175°N 98.5795°W / 39.828175; -98.5795

Yanayin wuraren gyarawa wanda ke da gida ga mata na iya zama babban dalilin kiwon lafiya da damuwa game da haƙƙin ɗan adam. Ganin cewa karuwar yawan mata da ke kurkuku ya kasance sabon abu ne na baya-bayan nan, kurkuku da kurkuku da aka gina don karɓar fursunonin maza ba a daidaita su don biyan bukatun mata na musamman ba, kamar samar da ciki da kulawa ta haihuwa, wasu ayyukan gynecological, Kula da lafiyar kwakwalwa, da isasshen masauki ga abubuwa kamar tsabtace haila.[6][7][8][9] Batutuwan da ke tattare da ka'idojin kulawa da isasshen yanayin kurkuku sun kara muni saboda rashin ka'idoji kan tattara bayanai da kuma mallakar ayyukan kiwon lafiya na kurkuku, wanda ba za a iya tsara shi sosai ba kamar ayyukan jama'a.[10]

Jama'ar kurkuku da kurkuku

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A Amurka a cikin shekara ta 2015, mata sun kasance kashi 10.4% na yawan mutanen da ke kurkuku a cikin kurkuku da kurkuku. [4][5] Tsakanin shekara ta 2000 da shekarar 2010, yawan maza a kurkuku ya karu da kashi 1.4% a kowace shekara, yayin da yawan mata ya karu da 1.9% a kowace shekara. Daga 2010 zuwa 2013, lambobin sun fadi ga maza da mata, -0.8% ga maza da -0.5% ga mata. Ga kurkuku adadi na 2000-2010 shine 1.8% ga maza da 2.6% ga mata, yayin da na 2010-2013 sun kasance -1.4% ga maza da 3.4% ga mata.[11] A wannan lokacin yawan mata na yawan mutanen da ke kurkuku yana ƙaruwa, aƙalla wani ɓangare saboda hukuncin tilas.

A ƙarshen karni na 20, an tsare matan Hispanic kusan sau biyu fiye da yawan fararen mata, kuma an tsare mata baƙi sau hudu fiye da yawan fari mata. Koyaya, tun daga shekarun 2000, yawan ɗaurin kurkuku ga mata na Afirka da Hispanic American sun ragu, yayin da yawan ɗaurin ya karu ga mata fararen mata. Tsakanin shekara ta 2000 da shekarar 2017, yawan fursunoni ga mata fararen fata ya karu da kashi 44%, yayin da a lokaci guda ya ragu da kashi 55% ga mata na Afirka.[12] Shirin Sentencing ya ba da rahoton cewa a shekarar 2021, yawan fursunoni ya ragu da kashi 70% ga matan Afirka na Amurka, yayin da ya karu da kashi 7% ga mata fararen fata.[13] A cikin 2017, jaridar Washington Post ta ruwaito cewa yawan fursunonin mata masu fari yana ƙaruwa da sauri fiye da kowane lokaci, yayin da adadin mata baƙi ya ragu. Yawan ɗaurin mazajen Afirka na Amurka ma yana fadowa sosai, har ma da sauri fiye da yawan ɗaurin fararen maza, sabanin ra'ayin da aka fi sani cewa baƙar fata maza suna ƙara ɗaurewa.

Shirin Manufofin Kurkuku ya rubuta cewa: "Mata da aka ɗaure sune 53% fari, 29% baƙar fata, 14% Hispanic, 2.5% Indiyawan Amurka da 'yan asalin Alaska, 0.9% Asiya, da 0.4% 'yan asalin Hawaiian da Pacific Islander. "[14]

A cikin Amurka, yawan ɗaurin mata ya karu sau biyar a cikin shekaru ashirin da suka ƙare a shekara ta 2001; karuwar ta faru ne saboda karuwar gurfanar da kuma yanke hukunci game da laifuka da suka shafi miyagun ƙwayoyi, karuwar tsananin laifuka, da kuma rashin takunkumin al'umma da magani ga mata waɗanda suka keta dokokin miyagun ƙ ƙwayoyi. Dokokin da suka shafi aikata laifuka da dokoki da ke da alaƙa da yaki da kwayoyi an haɗa su da karuwar yawan ɗaurin mata masu launin fata daga ƙananan zamantakewar al'umma. Wannan saurin bunkasa fursunonin mata wani abu ne wanda tsarin kurkuku na maza da farko bai shirya ba kuma, a sakamakon haka, kurkuku na mata galibi ba su da albarkatu don karɓar takamaiman bukatun zamantakewa, tunani, kiwon lafiya na waɗannan mata.[15] An tsara sauye-sauye da yawa da ke da niyyar rage yawan fursunoni tare da maza kawai a zuciya kuma don haka ba su taimaka wajen rage yawan mata da aka tsare ba; wannan gaskiya ne musamman ga sauye-shiryen matakin jiha. Kurkuku na mata a Amurka ya zama babban batun kare hakkin dan adam wanda kungiyoyin kasa da kasa kamar su Human Rights Watch suka soki sosai.

Tarihi

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Mata fursunoni a gidan yarin Jihar Mississippi (Parchman) a Sunflower County, Mississippi, c. 1930

A Amurka, hukumomi sun fara saukar da mata a wuraren gyarawa daban daga maza a cikin shekarun 1870. Gidan gyaran mata na farko na Amurka tare da gine-gine da ma'aikata masu sadaukarwa shine gidan yarin mata na Mount Pleasant a Ossining, New York; wurin yana da wasu dogaro da Sing Sing da ke kusa, gidan yarin maza.

Ba kamar kurkuku da aka tsara don maza a Amurka ba, kurkuku na jihohi don mata sun samo asali ne a cikin raƙuman ruwa uku, kamar yadda aka bayyana a cikin tarihin tarihi a cikin "Jirgin Shari'a: Mata a cikin Kurkuku na Jiha" na Nicole Hahn Rafter . Da farko, an daure fursunonin mata tare da maza a cikin "yawan jama'a", inda aka kai musu hari na jima'i da kuma sauye-sauye na yau da kullun.[16] Sa'an nan, a cikin wani yunkuri na magance waɗannan batutuwan, an cire fursunonin mata daga yawan jama'a kuma an sanya su daban, amma sai a yi watsi da su inda ba su sami albarkatun da maza a kurkuku ba. A mataki na uku na ci gaba, an sanya mata a kurkuku gaba ɗaya a cikin kurkuku masu kama da sansani, inda burin azabtarwa shine ya koya wa mata cikin matsayin mata na gargajiya.

Duk da sauye-sauyen tarihi da aka samu a cikin kurkuku na mata, an sami rubuce-rubuce na mata da aka tsare a cikin kurkukun maza har zuwa karni na ashirin, daya daga cikin irin wannan misali shine kusan shekaru biyu da aka daure Assata Shakur, da farko a cikin wuraren maza, a cikin shekarun 1970. [17] A shekara ta 1973 an gudanar da Shakur a gidan yarin Middlesex County a New Jersey, saboda kusanci da kotun. Ita ce mace ta farko, kuma ta ƙarshe, da aka taɓa ɗaure a can, kuma an tsare ta cikin yanayi mai banƙyama ciki har da warewa da sa'o'i ashirin da huɗu. Duk da yake an tura Shakur zuwa kurkukun mata, maganin da ta yi ya nuna gaskiyar cewa an tsare mata a wuraren maza har zuwa karni na ashirin.

Kimanin shekaru hamsin da suka gabata, Shugaba Lyndon Johnson ya yi kira ga "Yaƙi kan Laifi. " Sakamakon haka, Johnson ya gabatar wa Majalisa Dokar Taimako ta Tilasta Shari'a, wanda ya ba da damar a karo na farko a Amurka, "aikin kai tsaye ga Gwamnatin Tarayya a cikin ayyukan 'yan sanda na gida, tsarin kotu, da kurkuku na jihohi. " Masu tsara manufofin Republican da Democrat sun yi aiki tare wajen yaki da wannan Yakin kan Laifi, wanda daga baya zai zama Yakin kan kwayoyi. An gabatar da kalmar "War on Drugs" a hukumance a lokacin gwamnatin Nixon don hukunta duk amfani da miyagun ƙwayoyi da ba a amince da su ba, kuma yana nufin manufofin tarayya, jihohi, da na kananan hukumomi da aka kirkira don kawar da amfani da miyagu a cikin takamaiman al'ummomi.[18]

Gwamnatin Reagan ta ci gaba da matsawa sayar da miyagun ƙwayoyi ba bisa ka'ida ba a matsayin muhimmiyar batun siyasa. Dokar Kula da Laifuka ta Shugaba Reagan ta 1984 ta mayar da hankali kan ayyukan matasa na cikin gari da masu sayar da miyagun ƙwayoyi na ƙaramin lokaci. Dokokin yanke hukunci masu tsanani, musamman mafi ƙarancin hukunci, waɗanda suka kasance wani ɓangare na dokar aikata laifuka ta Reagan da Dokar Anti-Drug Abuse ta 1986 sun haifar da karuwar ɗaurin kurkuku. Misali, tsakanin shekara ta 1980 da shekarar 1998 yawan fursunoni na Amurka ya karu kusan kashi 300.[19] Sashe na Jagororin Shari'ar Tarayyar Amurka ya kuma tilasta wa alƙalai su ba da dogon hukunci koda kuwa sun yi imanin cewa wanda ake tuhuma ba barazana ba ne ga al'umma. A shekara ta 1984, Majalisa ta kuma kafa dokoki da ke tilasta mafi ƙarancin hukunci don laifuffukan miyagun ƙwayoyi da makamai, da kuma karɓar ma'anar "ayyukan da suka shafi miyagun ƙ ƙwayoyi" da kuma hukunci mai tsanani ga waɗanda ke da alaƙa da miyagun ƙwalwa.[20] An yi niyyar wannan ne don kiyaye mutane tare da kowane irin alaƙa da kwayoyi "'a kan tituna' da kuma bayan sanduna" na dogon lokaci.[20] Wadannan jagororin da suka fi tsananin sun tura maza da mata shekaru da yawa. Yakin kan miyagun ƙwayoyi ya yi niyya ga mutane fiye da waɗanda ke amfani da su ko masu jaraba da miyagun ƙ ƙwayoyi ta hanyar cin zarafin waɗanda ke "ba tare da saninsu ba, ba tare da saninsa ba, ko kuma a gefe" da ke da hannu a cikin ayyukan da suka shafi miyagun ƙwalwa.[20] Tare, Yakin kan Laifi da Yakin kan Magunguna sun samar da ɗaurin kurkuku na zamani a Amurka, "wanda aka bambanta da yawan ɗaurin kurkukun da ya fi sauran kasashe masu masana'antu kuma ya haɗa da tsare-tsare na dukkan kungiyoyin 'yan ƙasa. "

 
Yawan ɗaurin kurkuku a Amurka ta hanyar jinsi, 1925-2008

Yakin kan miyagun ƙwayoyi ya sami takamaiman sakamako mai banƙyama ga mata, musamman mata da ke da alaƙa da abokan tarayya ko dangi waɗanda ke amfani ko sayar da miyagun ƙ ƙwayoyi, da kuma mata waɗanda ba su da wani zaɓi sai dai su shiga cikin kasuwancin miyagun ƙwalwa don tallafa wa iyalansu a cikin "rashin ayyukan albashi da kuma fuskantar raguwa ga taimakon jama'a". [20] Yawan mata a kurkuku da lokacin da suka yi a ciki sun karu sosai a cikin shekarun 1980 da 1990. Tsakanin shekara ta 1986 da shekarar 1999, yawan mata da aka tsare a kurkuku na jihar saboda laifukan da suka shafi miyagun ƙwayoyi ya karu da kashi 888.[21] Fiye da haka, ya kuma fadada aikata laifuka ga mutane ta hanyar launin fata da jinsi. Misali, an sami karuwa mai ban sha'awa a cikin adadin matan Afirka da Latina da aka tsare a Amurka, waɗanda suka zama yawan mata da aka kama, aka tuhume su, aka yanke musu hukunci, kuma aka tsare su saboda laifukan da suka shafi miyagun ƙwayoyi. Adadin ɗaurin kurkuku ga matan Afirka na Amurka don duk laifuka, wanda ya haifar da laifuka masu alaƙa da miyagun ƙwayoyi, ya karu da kashi 800 tsakanin 1986 da 2005, idan aka kwatanta da karuwar kashi 400 ga mata na dukkan kabilu.[20]

Kodayake yawan laifuka da mata suka aikata ya kasance daidai, yawan ɗaurin kurkuku ya ci gaba da ƙaruwa. Ya zuwa shekara ta 2018 akwai mata sama da 219,000 a cikin kurkuku da kurkuku a Amurka, [2] kuma an yi imanin cewa wannan yana haifar da karuwar ɗaurin kurkuku don mayar da martani ga laifukan miyagun ƙwayoyi.

Jima'i na masu gadi da ma'aikata

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Ya zuwa shekara ta 2007, a mafi yawan kasashen Yamma, masu gadi a cikin kurkukun mata mata ne kawai. A halin yanzu, a cikin wannan shekarar, kusan kashi 40% na Masu tsaron kurkuku a cikin kurkukun mata na Amurka maza ne. A wasu wurare, yawancin masu tsaron kurkuku maza ne: Silja Talvi, marubucin Women Behind Bars: The Crisis of Women in the US Prison System, ya yi jayayya cewa a ka'idar daidaito tsakanin jinsi yana da ma'ana a duk ayyukan, amma a aikace samun masu tsaron maza suna kula da fursunonin mata matsala ce. Har zuwa lokacin da aka zartar da Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta 1964 da Dokar Daidaitaccen Aiki ta 1972, wannan gaskiya ne a Amurka. Maza yawanci suna aiki a wuraren da ke kewaye, kamar wuraren ƙofar, maimakon yin hulɗa kai tsaye da fursunonin mata. Ma'aikatan maza a baya suna da ƙuntataccen matsayi. Dukkanin ayyukan sun haɗa da ma'aikata, kuma bayan ayyukan sun wuce ma'aikatan maza sun sami ci gaba da hulɗa kai tsaye tare da fursunonin mata.[22]

 
Female prisoners at Parchman sewing, c. 1930

Abubuwan zamantakewa da ke haifar da ɗaurin kurkuku

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Akwai dalilai da yawa na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki waɗanda ke inganta sake zagayowar ɗaurin kurkuku. Girman ci gaban fursunonin mata yana nuna "dokokin jinsi" a Amurka, da kuma matsayi na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki na mata. Yawan wakilci na 'yan tsiraru da matalauta a kurkuku yana nuna "dakarun da suka kafu sosai na wariyar launin fata da nuna bambanci na aji. " [23] Iyalan matalauta da ke zaune a cikin birane "marasa masana'antu", "marasa al'ummominsu na gargajiya na abinci da warkarwa" suna iya zama wadanda ke fama da "tsananin tashin hankali wanda ya riga ya ƙaddara ɗaurin su. "musamman, wariyar launin fatalwa, tashin hankali na gida, da cin zarafin rayuwarta ta shiga kurkuku". Rick ya sa' yanka. Na farko, tasirin duniya da sake fasalin tattalin arziki a kan al'ummomin da ba su da isasshen kuɗi. Na biyu, Yakin da Magunguna. Na uku, rawar da baƙi ba bisa ka'ida ba daga kudu, ɗaurin makamashi. A ƙarshe, fitowar wani makircin masana'antu, dangantaka tsakanin kamfanoni da bukatun gwamnati wanda ya haifar da fadada kurkuku a Amurka. Tare da waɗannan abubuwa, ana aikata laifuka ga talauci na mata a hanyoyi da yawa. Saboda mata na talauci da rashin zaɓin gidaje ga mata masu launin fata tare da yara, Yakin kan Magunguna yana shafar mata marasa rinjaye da ke zaune a cikin birane na ciki, yana tilasta musu rayuwa a cikin "babban laifi, yankunan da ke cike da miyagun ƙwayoyi". A fuskar raguwar samun kudin shiga da 'yan damar tattalin arziki, mata galibi ba su da wani zaɓi sai dai su juya zuwa tattalin arzikin titi, aikin jima'i, ɗan sata, jin daɗi "cin zamba" da sauran hanyoyin rayuwa.[24] Ga mata da yawa, tashin hankali na mutum ko na gida da cin zarafin jima'i wani bangare ne na ɗaurin kurkuku. Ga matalauta musamman, abubuwan da suka faru na tashin hankali, musamman a cikin gida, na iya haifar da halayyar da ke haifar da kamawa da tuhumar laifi. Talauci kuma yana da laifi lokacin da mata masu fama da rashin lafiya na kwakwalwa, mafi yawan wadanda suka fuskanci alamun da suka faru daga yara da kuma raunin manya, suka shiga hulɗa da doka, ko dai ta hanyar "halayyar rashin jama'a ko tashin hankali ko ta hanyar maganin kansu da miyagun ƙwayoyi ba bisa ka'ida ba".

Mata masu launin fata kuma suna jin matsin lamba don shiga cikin 'al'amarin' na abin da rayuwar zamantakewa ta kamata ta kasance ga mata (watau yin aure da farin ciki, suna da iyali mai aiki, suna da aiki mai kyau da gida mai kyau). Wannan sau da yawa yana haifar da daidaitawa da karɓar dangantakar zamba ko daidaitawa da tsammanin abokin tarayya. Misali, mata da ke fama da shan miyagun ƙwayoyi galibi suna fuskantar shi ta hanyar abokin tarayya. Bincike ya nuna cewa mata, a zahiri, sun yi imanin cewa shiga cikin irin waɗannan ayyukan lalacewa zai haifar da haɗin motsin rai mai ƙarfi, tare da dakatar da cin zarafin da suke jimrewa akai-akai. Sun ɗauka cewa saboda dangantakarsu tana sauka, dole ne ya zama gazawar su kuma sun yanke shawarar yin canji, yawanci don mafi muni.[25]

Matsalar da baƙar fata ke fuskanta a cikin al'umma tana shafar sakamakon mata; dole ne su ɗauki matsayin mai ba da abinci kuma sau da yawa, idan ba su isa ba, suna haifar da ɗaukar madadin kamar shiga cikin kwayoyi, sata, da karuwanci. Wannan na iya haifar da ɗaurin kurkuku. Bayanan da ke fitowa na mace mai laifi baƙar fata shine "na matashi, mara ilimi, uwa ɗaya. Wataƙila ba ta da aikin yi, tare da ƙwarewar kasuwa kaɗan, kuma tana iya kasancewa a kan jin dadin jama'a".[25] An kuma bayyana fursunonin mata a matsayin "sun kasance cikin yanayin zamantakewa a cikin al'ummominsu, an hana su ta yanayin iyalansu, an iyakance su sosai ta hanyar cin zarafi a cikin dangantakarsu ta kusa, kuma an tilasta su yin zabi mai wuya tare da zaɓuɓɓuka kaɗan". Ana nuna su a matsayin "wanda aka tilasta musu aikata laifuka".[26]

Bambance-bambance tsakanin mata da maza da ke kurkuku

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Maza sun kasance mafi yawan fursunoni a Amurka, kusan sau goma fiye da mata a cikin 2013, [11] amma yawan ci gaban mata ya kasance mafi girma fiye da yawan ci gaban maza a cikin 'yan shekarun da suka gabata, bambancin da aka fi bayyana a cikin wuraren jihar. [27] Ana tsare mata a kurkuku ba tare da daidaituwa ba: Shirin Manufar Kurkuku ya gano cewa "kimanin kashi ɗaya cikin huɗu na matan da aka yanke musu hukunci ana tsare su a kurkuku, idan aka kwatanta da kusan kashi 10% na duk mutanen da aka yanke wa hukuncin kisa. " Nazarin ya nuna cewa hanyar da maza da mata ke jimrewa yayin da suke kurkuku ya bambanta da cewa mata suna da tsarin iyali a kokarin sake haifar da matsayin da za su bi a cikin al'umma; duk da haka, maza suna da hankali ga ware kansu daga wasu kuma suna da zama masu tsattsauran ra'ayi ga sauran fursunoni. [28][29][30] Kula da yara kuma wani batu ne wanda dole ne mata su damu da shi lokacin da aka tsare su. A cewar Mumola, kashi 64% na mata sun kasance masu kula da yara kafin a ɗaure su idan aka kwatanta da maza da kashi 44% kawai. Wataƙila maza kamar mata sun fuskanci Abubuwan da suka faru a lokacin yarantakarsu, amma bincike ya nuna cewa mata suna fuskantar mafi girman rauni.[31]

Fayil:Women incarceration US Statista.png
Babu wata ƙasa a duniya da ke ɗaure mata da yawa fiye da Amurka, kamar yadda Statista ya nuna a cikin binciken 2013.

Saboda jihohi da yawa suna da kayan aikin mata guda ɗaya, idan aka kwatanta da samun kayan aikin maza da yawa, ana tilasta mata su zauna a wannan takamaiman kayan aiki.[32] Mata ba su da zaɓi na canja wurin zuwa wani wuri kamar maza kuma suna "ƙwarewa da ƙarin rashi" saboda ba su da wani zaɓi don canja wurin a lokuta na matsala tare da wasu fursunoni ko ma'aikatan aiki ko a lokuta na son kasancewa kusa da gida.[32] Mata suna da karancin ziyara daga yaransu, wanda ya rinjayi gaskiyar cewa wuraren mata suna da iyaka kuma galibi suna cikin yankunan karkara da ke nesa da garuruwan mata.[32] Lokacin da maza ke kurkuku, abokan aikinsu mata na iya ɗaukar yara su ziyarce shi.[32] Koyaya, saboda kididdigar da aka yi akan yawancin fursunonin mata masu kula da yara, yawanci wani mace na iyali zai kula da 'ya'yanta.[32]

Wadanda ke kula da yara tare da mahaifiyar da ke kurkuku inda mahaifiyar ita ce mai kula da farko, farashin kudi na kiwon yaran mahaifiyar da aka tsare yana iyakance adadin albarkatun da mutane ke aikawa ga mahaifiyar da take kurkuku.[32] Girma da yaro, musamman a wannan yanayin, ɗan wani, yana da tsada.[32] Kamar yadda aka bayyana a cikin tushen "Rashin tsira daga ɗaurin kurkuku: Shirye-shiryen takwarorinsu guda biyu na kurkuku suna gina al'ummomin tallafi ga masu laifi mata," uwaye a kurkuku gabaɗaya "sun damu game da jin daɗin yaransu, idan an kula da yaransu yadda ya kamata, kuma idan za su iya kula da dangantaka ta dogon lokaci tare da yaransu maimakon waɗannan shingen.[32]

Mata da ke kurkuku suna amfani da ɗakin karatu na kurkuku daban da yadda fursunonin maza ke yi. Gabaɗaya, mata ba su da damar amfani da ɗakin karatu na doka don "bincike sosai game da shari'arsu". Wasu malamai sun yi imanin cewa wannan saboda kalmomin mata sun fi guntu kuma ba su da tsanani fiye da na maza. Sau da yawa, matan da ke kurkuku suna neman bayani game da dokar aure da kula da yara da tallafi a cikin ɗakin karatu na kurkuku.

Rukunin Mutuwa

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Mountain View Unit, kurkuku na jihar don mata a Gatesville, Texas, yana da gidan mutuwar mata na jihar.

Adadin mata a kan layin mutuwa ya fi ƙasa da yawan maza, mata sun kai kashi 2% kawai na fursunonin layin mutuwa a shekarar 2013.[33] Dukkanin mata da ke kan layin mutuwa a cikin ƙarni biyu da suka gabata sun aikata kisan kai, ban da Ethel Rosenberg, wanda aka yanke masa hukuncin kisa saboda leken asiri. Mata a kan layin mutuwa suna da ƙananan damar da za a kashe su: an yi rubuce-rubuce 571 kawai daga 1632 zuwa 2012.[34] A halin yanzu, kusan rabin mata a kan layin mutuwa suna cikin manyan jihohi biyar don yanke hukuncin kisa (California, Florida, Texas, North Carolina da Ohio). Kodayake California ita ce babbar jiha don hukuncin kisa, ba a kashe wata mace ba tun 1962.[34]

Matsalar lafiyar kwakwalwa

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Gabaɗaya, yawan mutanen da ke cikin kurkuku sun fi yawan jama'a su sami rashin lafiya na hankali.[35] Ga mata da yawa, abubuwan da suka faru tare da talauci, rashin lafiya na hankali, shan miyagun ƙwayoyi, da cin zarafin jiki, motsin rai, ko jima'i suna taimakawa wajen shigar da su cikin tsarin shari'ar aikata laifuka.[36] Ya zuwa shekara ta 2006, kusan kashi 64% na mata da ke shiga kurkuku da kashi 54% na mata masu shiga kurkuku suna da cutar kwakwalwa ɗaya ko fiye.[35] Yawancin mutane suna sane da bambance-bambance a cikin lafiyar kwakwalwa tsakanin mutanen da ke cikin kurkuku da yawan jama'a, amma kaɗan ne suka san bambancin jinsi a cikin batutuwan lafiyar kwakwalwa magareng ga maza da mata da ke cikin fursunoni. Kusan sau biyu fiye da mata da yawa a wuraren gyarawa sun ba da rahoton fama da rashin lafiya na hankali kamar maza.[6] Kuma yayin da daya daga cikin maza bakwai ya ba da rahoton gogewa tare da mummunar damuwa ta hankali, daya daga cikin mata biyar ya ba da labarin irin wannan gogewa.[6]

Samun alamun da suka gabata da kuma gano cututtukan kwakwalwa na iya karawa da kuma kara tsanantawa ta hanyar tsarin kurkuku wanda ba zai iya samar da goyon baya ga fursunoni ba.[35] Akwai yarjejeniya mai yawa cewa sabis na kiwon lafiya na kwakwalwa ga mutanen da ke cikin kurkuku ba su isa ba, kuma ban da rashin samar da isasshen maganin kiwon lafiya da sabis, kurkuku da kurkuku suna da rigakafi, inda kwarewar ɗaurin kansa na iya kara matsalolin kiwon lafiya ko haifar da sababbin.[6][37]

Raunin tunani

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Mutanen da ke cikin kurkuku suna da yawan mutanen da suka fuskanci wasu nau'o'in cin zarafi a rayuwarsu. Saboda haka mata da yawa da ke kurkuku suna fama da damuwa ta jiki, ta tunani, ko ta zamantakewa sakamakon raunin da suka gabata.[37] Mata da yawa a kurkuku tare da tarihin rauni da cin zarafi suna nuna alamun rikicewar damuwa da cutar mata, kuma suna da saukin kamuwa da abubuwan da suka faru a cikin gidan yarin.[36] Tsarin kurkuku, musamman tare da masu tsaron maza, na iya kwaikwayon tasirin iko da aka yi a rayuwar mata a baya, kuma manufofi da ayyukan kurkuku da yawa na iya kara tsananta waɗannan abubuwan, kamar binciken jiki na ciki, rashin kulawa ta jiki ko ta jiki ta masu gadi, da mamayewa ko cikakkiyar rashin sirri a cikin sel.[36][37] Mata kuma koyaushe suna sane da barazanar cin zarafin jima'i a cikin gidan kurkuku, wanda ke ba da gudummawa ga jin dadin rauni da rashin iko wanda mata da suka ji rauni a baya na iya fuskanta.[36] Mata da ke kurkuku suna fama da raunin jima'i da ya gabata a mafi girma fiye da maza da ke kurkukun.[6]

Wani binciken da aka yi a shekara ta 2009 ya gano cewa kashi 70% na matan da ke kurkuku suna fuskantar mummunar tashin hankali ta jiki ta hanyar iyaye, kashi 59% sun fuskanci wasu nau'ikan cin zarafin jima'i tun suna yara, kuma fiye da kashi 75% sun fuskanci tashin hankali na jiki daga abokin tarayya a lokacin da suke girma.[37] Kuma bincike ya nuna alaƙa mai ƙarfi tsakanin fuskantar cin zarafin yara da samun cututtukan lafiyar kwakwalwa a lokacin da suka girma. [37]

Yin amfani da miyagun ƙwayoyi

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Mata a kurkuku suna fama da yawan cututtukan shan miyagun ƙwayoyi. Wani binciken da aka yi a shekara ta 2006 ya gano cewa yawan cututtukan shan miyagun ƙwayoyi tsakanin mata da ke kurkuku a cikin kashi 71.6%, kuma mafi girma tsakanin mata da tarihin rauni na yara.[37] A cewar Ofishin Kididdigar Shari'a na Mata Masu Laifi (Disamban shekarar 1999), a cikin shekara ta 1998 kashi 40% na mata a cikin gidajen kurkuku na Amurka sun ce suna amfani da kwayoyi a lokacin da suka aikata laifukan da aka yanke musu hukunci, idan aka kwatanta da kashi 32% na maza, kuma na mata a gidajen kurkukun jihohi a cikin 1998, kashi ɗaya bisa uku sun aikata laifukansu don sayen kwayoyi.[38]

Cin zarafin jima'i a wuraren gyarawa

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A tarihi, cin zarafin jima'i a cikin kurkuku da tsarin kurkuku ya kasance mai yawa kamar yadda aka gani ta hanyar shekaru na cin zarafin mata da aka tsare da kurkuku ta masu kula da kurkuku da masu gadi.[39] Tun daga shekarun 1800, Estelle Freedman ta haskaka haske a gidan karuwai na kurkuku wanda ma'aikatan maza na gidan yarin jihar Indiana ke gudanarwa.[39] Cin zarafin jima'i na iya fitowa daga ayyuka da halaye daban-daban, kuma wasu nau'ikan cin zarafin jimaʼi suna daidaitawa ta hanyar sarrafa "ayyukan kurkuku na yau da kullun" kamar su pat downs.[39] Kodayake ana ganin cin zarafin jima'i da fyade a duk haɗuwa da jinsi, rahotanni da yawa sun nuna cewa masu gadi maza suna iya haifar da hare-hare kan mata fursunoni saboda gaskiyar cewa suna iya yin aiki kusan kyauta, yawanci ba tare da hukunci ba.[39]

Cin zarafin jima'i da fyade na iya faruwa ga dukkan kungiyoyin jama'a a cikin tsarin kurkuku, amma wadanda ke cikin al'ummar LGBT ko mutanen da ke fama da rashin lafiya na kwakwalwa sun fi mayar da hankali.[40] Wani babban kurkuku da aka samu a Kudancin Amurka ya gano ta hanyar bincike mai zurfi cewa kashi 68.4% sun fuskanci cin zarafin jima'i kafin a ɗaure su, kuma kashi 17.2% sun fuskanci fyade a kurkuku. Kashi uku cikin dari na mutanen da ke cikin wannan binciken sun fuskanci fyade a cikin kurkuku.[41] Bayanan kididdigar Ofishin Shari'a sun nuna cewa mata suna cikin haɗari mafi girma fiye da maza na cin zarafin jima'i tsakanin fursunoni da fursunoni, kuma ƙananan haɗarin cin zarafin ma'aikata:

Yaduwar cin zarafin jima'i, ta hanyar irin abin da ya faru da jima'i.[42]
Fursunoni da ke kurkuku suna ba da rahoton cin zarafin jima'i Fursunoni na kurkuku suna ba da rahoton cin zarafin jima'i
Jima'i Adadin fursunoni Fursunoni a kan Fursunonin Halin jima'i na ma'aikata Adadin fursunoni Fursunoni a kan Fursunonin Halin jima'i na ma'aikata
Maza 1,357,100 1.9% 2.9% 678,100 1.3% 2.1%
Mata 100,600 4.7% [bayanin bayani 4] 2.1% [bayanin bayani 4] 99,100 3.1% [bayanin bayani 4] 1.5% [bayanin bayani 4]

Wannan binciken ya nuna cewa mata ba su da damar cin zarafin maza, amma sun fi dacewa da shawo kansu. Game da cin zarafin fursunoni a kurkuku, maza (16%) sun fi dacewa da mata (6%) da aka azabtar da su sau 11 ko fiye, an ba su cin hanci ko kuma an yi musu ba'a (42% idan aka kwatanta da 26%), an ba da kariya (39% idan aka kwatanta le 19%), ko kuma an barazanar cutar (48% idan aka kwatanta við 30%). Maza sun fi dacewa fiye da mata su bayar da rahoto suna da masu aikata laifin da yawa (25% idan aka kwatanta da 11%), kuma suna da abubuwan da suka faru da ƙungiyar (20% idan aka kwatanta le 4%). Irin wannan rabo da aka yi amfani da shi ga kurkuku.[43]

Wani binciken da aka buga a cikin Jaridar Ciwon Tsoro da Mental ya gano cewa a cikin Cibiyar Kula da Mata a Rhode Island, kashi 48.2% na fursunoni sun cika ka'idojin PTSD na yanzu da 20.0% na PTSD na rayuwa. Bincike ya nuna cewa "mata da ke da tarihin cin zarafi suna iya karɓar mummunar jima'i daga ma'aikatan kurkuku saboda sun riga sun kasance don amsawa ga tilastawa da barazanar ta hanyar amincewa don kare kansu daga ƙarin tashin hankali". "A cikin wuraren gyara mata na tarayya, kashi 70% na masu gadi maza ne. "[44]

manazarta

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  1. ↑ Kajstura, Aleks (November 13, 2018). "Women's Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2018". prisonpolicy.org. Retrieved 2019-03-22.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Kajstura, Aleks. "Women's Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2018". www.prisonpolicy.org. Retrieved 2019-10-17.
  3. ↑ Sufrin, Carolyn; Kolbi-Molinas, Alexa; Roth, Rachel (2015). "Reproductive Justice, Health Disparities And Incarcerated Women in the United States". Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health (in Turanci). 47 (4): 213–219. doi:10.1363/47e3115. ISSN 1931-2393. PMID 26098183.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Kaeble, Danielle; Glaze, Lauren (December 2016). "Correctional Populations in the United States, 2015". Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 See PDF. Appendix table 3 on page 14 has state by state counts and rates of female incarceration. It says there are 1,942,500 male and 202,600 female inmates in prisons and jails. That is 10.4% female.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Villa, Michael (June 22, 2017). "The Mental Health Crisis Facing Women in Prison". The Marshall Project. Archived from the original on 2017-08-03.
  7. ↑ Cardaci, Regina (2013). "Care of Pregnant Women in the Criminal Justice System". American Journal of Nursing. 113 (9): 40–50. doi:10.1097/01.NAJ.0000434171.38503.77. JSTOR 24466200. PMID 23958675. S2CID 46208703.
  8. ↑ Ahrens, Deborah (January 1, 2015). "Incarcerated Childbirth and Broader "Birth Control": Autonomy, Regulation, and the State". Missouri Law Review. 80 (1). ISSN 0026-6604.
  9. ↑ Smith, Catrin (2009). "A Period in Custody: Menstruation and the Imprisoned Body" (PDF). Internet Journal of Criminology.
  10. ↑ Goshin, Lorie S.; Colbert, Alison M. (May 2019). "The Health of Incarcerated Pregnant Women: Some Much Needed Data and Beyond". American Journal of Public Health. 109 (5): 657–658. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2019.305044. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 6459626. PMID 30969824.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Correctional Populations in the United States, 2013 (NCJ 248479). Published December 2014 by U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). By Lauren E. Glaze and Danielle Kaeble, BJS statisticians. See PDF. See page 1 "highlights" section for the "1 in ..." numbers. See table 1 on page 2 for adult numbers. See table 5 on page 6 for male and female numbers. See appendix table 5 on page 13, for "Estimated number of persons supervised by adult correctional systems, by correctional status, 2000–2013." See appendix table 2: "Inmates held in custody in state or federal prisons or in local jails, 2000 and 2012–2013".
  12. ↑ Sultan, Bonnie; Myrent, Mark. "Women and Girls in Corrections" (PDF). Justice Research and Statistics Association (JRSA). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-08-27. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  13. ↑ Budd, Kristen (April 3, 2023). "Incarcerated Women and Girls". The Sentencing Project.
  14. ↑ Kajstura, Aleks (November 13, 2018). "Women's Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2018". prisonpolicy.org. Retrieved 2019-03-22.
  15. ↑ Acoca, L. "Defusing the Time Bomb: Understanding and Meeting the Growing Health Care Needs of Incarcerated Women in America." Crime & Delinquency 44.1 (1998): 49–69. Sage Journals. Web. March 12, 2012.
  16. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :17
  17. ↑ Shakur, Assata (May 2, 2013). "Former Black Panther Assata Shakur Added to FBI's Most Wanted Terrorist List". Democracy Now. Retrieved May 15, 2016.
  18. ↑ Reagan, Bernida (1991). "The War on Drugs: A War against Women". Berkeley Women's Law Journal (6): 203.
  19. ↑ U.S. Department of Justice. "Prisoners in 1998" (PDF). Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved December 5, 2018.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 American Civil Liberties Union. "Caught in the Net: The Impact of Drug Problems on Women and Families".
  21. ↑ Mauer, Marc. "Gender and Justice: Women, Drugs, and Sentencing Policy" (PDF). The Sentencing Project. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 14, 2017. Retrieved December 5, 2018.
  22. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Talvi2007_p57
  23. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named University of California Press
  24. ↑ Reagan, Bernida (1991). "The War on Drugs: A War against Women". Berkeley Women's L.J. (6): 206.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Henriques, Zelma Weston; Manatu-Rupert, Norma (2001). "Living on the outside: African American women before, during, and after imprisonment". The Prison Journal. 81 (1): 6–19. doi:10.1177/0032885501081001002. S2CID 143465500.
  26. ↑ DeHart, Dana D (2008). "Pathways to prison impact of victimization in the lives of incarcerated women". Violence Against Women. 14 (12): 1362–1381. doi:10.1177/1077801208327018. PMID 19008544. S2CID 23005508.
  27. ↑ Sawer, Wendy (January 9, 2018). "The Gender Divide: Tracking women's state prison growth". www.prisonpolicy.org. Retrieved 2019-03-22.
  28. ↑ Kajstura, Aleks (November 13, 2018). "Women's Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2018". www.prisonpolicy.org. Retrieved 2019-03-22.
  29. ↑ Johnson, R. (2002). Hard time: Understanding and reforming the prison (3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth
  30. ↑ Ward, D., & Kasselbaum, G. (1965). Women's prison: Sex and social structure. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.
  31. ↑ Pollock, J. (2004). Prisons and prison life: Costs and consequences. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing Company.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 32.7 Collica, K. (2010). "Surviving incarceration: Two prison-based peer programs build communities of support for female offenders". Deviant Behavior. 31 (4): 314–47. doi:10.1080/01639620903004812. S2CID 144157908.
  33. ↑ "Death Row Population Size and Characteristics". Death Penalty Focus. Archived from the original on May 8, 2014. Retrieved May 2, 2014.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Streib, Victor. "Death Penalty for Female Offenders, January 1, 1973 through December 31, 2012" (PDF). Retrieved May 2, 2014.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Lynch, Shannon M., et al. "Women's Pathways to Jail: The Roles & Intersections of Serious Mental Illness & Trauma." PsycEXTRA Dataset, 2012, doi:10.1037/e528222013-001. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":4" defined multiple times with different content
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 Dirks, Danielle (2004). "Sexual Revictimization and Retraumatization of Women in Prison". Women's Studies Quarterly. 32 (3/4): 102–115. JSTOR 40004582.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 Moloney, K. P.; van den Bergh, B. J.; Moller, L. F. (June 1, 2009). "Women in prison: The central issues of gender characteristics and trauma history". Public Health. 123 (6): 426–430. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2009.04.002. ISSN 0033-3506. PMID 19493553.
  38. ↑ "Women in the Criminal Justice System: Briefing Sheets" (PDF). The Sentencing Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-02-02. ()
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 VanNatta, Michelle. "Conceptualizing and Stopping State Sexual Violence Against Incarcerated Women." Social Justice, vol. 37, no. 1 (119), 2010, pp. 27–52. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41336934.
  40. ↑ McFarlane, Linda, and Melissa Rothstein. "Survivors Behind Bars: Supporting Survivors of Prison Rape and Sexual Assault." Support for Survivors, www.calcasa.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/Survivors-Behind-Bars.pdf.
  41. ↑ Blackburn, Ashley G.; Mullings, Janet L.; Marquart, James W. (2008). "Sexual Assault in Prison and Beyond". The Prison Journal. 88 (3): 351–377. doi:10.1177/0032885508322443. S2CID 144193560.
  42. ↑ "Sexual Victimization in Prisons and Jails Reported by Inmates, 2008–09" (PDF). Table 5
  43. ↑ "Sexual Victimization in Prisons and Jails Reported by Inmates, 2008–09" (PDF). p. 21.
  44. ↑ Brown, Sherri (April 2011). "Working with Women who are Survivors of the United States 'Corrections' Systems: Challenges for Social Service Workers". Lecture at University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA.
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