Wikipedia

Karatu

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Masu karatun lauyanci a makarantar GSU

Bayani

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Makaranta

Karatu shi ne tsarin daukar ma’ana ko ma’anar haruffa, alamomi da sauransu, musamman ta wurin gani ko tabawa.[1][2][3][4]Ga masu ilmantarwa da masu bincike, karatu wani tsari ne da ya kunshi bangarori daban-daban da suka hada da sanin kalmomi, rubutun kalmomi (haruffa), haruffa, sauti, wayar da kan jama'a, ƙamus, fahimta, iyawa, da kuzari.[5][6]. Sauran nau'ikan karatu da rubutu, kamar hotuna (misali, alamar haɗari da emoji), ba su dogara da tsarin rubutu na tushen magana ba.[7]Haɗin da aka gama gama gari shine fassarar alamomi don fitar da ma'anar daga abubuwan gani ko siginoni masu taɓawa (kamar yadda yake a cikin ma'anar maɗaukaki).[8].

Dubawa

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Karatu yawanci aiki ne na mutum ɗaya, ana yin shi shiru, kodayake a wani lokaci mutum yakan karanta da babbar murya ga sauran masu sauraro; ko karanta a bayyane don amfanin kansa, don ƙarin fahimta. Kafin sake gabatar da keɓantaccen rubutu (sarari tsakanin kalmomi) a ƙarshen Zamani na Tsakiya, ikon karantawa cikin shiru an yi la'akari da abin ban mamaki.[9][10]

Manyan masu hasashen iyawar mutum na karanta duka rubuce-rubucen haruffa da waɗanda ba na haruffa ba sune ƙwarewar harshe na baka,wayar da kan jama'a, saurin sanya suna da sauri da IQ na magana.[11] A matsayin ayyukan nishaɗi, yara da manya suna karantawa saboda yana da daɗi da ban sha'awa. A Amurka, kusan rabin dukan manya suna karanta littattafai ɗaya ko fiye don jin daɗi kowace shekara[12]Kusan kashi 5% na karanta littattafai sama da 50 a shekara.[13]Amirkawa sun fi karantawa idan: sun sami ƙarin ilimi, karantawa sosai da sauƙi, mata ne, suna zaune a birane, kuma suna da matsayi mafi girma na zamantakewa.[13]Yara sun zama masu karatu mafi kyau idan sun san duniya gabaɗaya, da kuma lokacin da suka fahimci karatu a matsayin nishaɗi maimakon wani aikin da za a yi.[13] Karatu wani muhimmin bangare ne na ilimin rubutu, amma duk da haka ta fuskar tarihi ilimin ilimin ya shafi samun ikon karatu da rubutu. [14][15][16][17] Kuma, tun daga 1990s wasu ƙungiyoyi sun ayyana ilimin karatu ta hanyoyi daban-daban waɗanda za su iya wuce ikon karatu da rubutu na gargajiya. Ga wasu misalai:

"Ikon karantawa da rubutu ... a cikin dukkan kafofin watsa labarai (bugu ko na lantarki), gami da karatun dijital"[19]

"Ikon ... fahimta ... ta amfani da bugu da rubuce-rubucen da ke da alaƙa da mabanbantan mahallin"[18][19][20]

"Ikon karantawa, rubutu, magana da saurare"[21]

"Samun basirar iya karatu, rubutu da magana don fahimta da ƙirƙirar ma'ana" [22]

"Ikon ... sadarwa ta amfani da kayan gani, ji, da dijital"[23][24]

"Karfin yin amfani da bayanan bugu da rubuce-rubuce don aiki a cikin al'umma, don cimma burin mutum, da haɓaka ilimi da damarsa"[25]. Ya ƙunshi nau'o'in ilimin manya guda uku: prose (misali, labarin jarida), takardu (misali, jadawalin bas), da ilimin ƙididdiga (misali, yin amfani da ayyukan lissafi a cikin tallan samfur).[26]

A fagen ilimi, wasu suna kallon karatun ta hanyar falsafa kuma suna ba da ra'ayi na "multiliteracies". Alal misali, sun ce, “wannan gagarumin sauyi daga ilimin rubutu na gargajiya zuwa na zamani na 21, yana nuna tasirin fasahar sadarwa da kafofin watsa labaru kan ci gaban da ake samu na rubutu, da kuma fasaha da yanayin da ke tattare da amfani, samarwa, tantancewa. , da kuma rarraba waɗancan rubutun (Borsheim, Meritt, & Reed, 2008, shafi na 87)".[27] A cewar masanin kimiyyar kwakwalwa Mark Seidenberg wadannan "ilimantarwa da yawa" sun baiwa malamai damar canza batun daga karatu da rubutu zuwa "Literacy". Ya ci gaba da cewa wasu malamai idan suka fuskanci suka kan yadda ake karantarwa, “ba su canza al’adarsu ba, sai suka canza batun [28]. Hakanan, wasu ƙungiyoyi na iya haɗawa da ƙwarewar ƙididdigewa da ƙwarewar fasaha daban amma tare da ƙwarewar karatu.[29]Bugu da kari, tun a shekarun 1940 ana amfani da kalmar karatu sau da yawa don nufin samun ilimi ko fasaha a wani fanni (misali ilimin kwamfuta, ilimin muhalli, ilimin kiwon lafiya, karatun kafofin watsa labarai, karatun ƙididdigewa (ƙididdigar ƙima) [30]da kuma karatun gani).[31][32][33]

Tsarin rubutu

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Babban labarin: Tsarin rubutu

Don fahimtar rubutu, yawanci ya zama dole a fahimci yaren magana da ke da alaƙa da wannan rubutun. Ta haka ne tsarin rubutu ke bambanta da sauran tsarin sadarwa na alama.[34]Da zarar an kafa shi, tsarin rubutu gaba ɗaya yana canzawa a hankali fiye da takwarorinsu na magana, kuma galibi suna adana fasali da maganganun da ba su wanzu a cikin harshen magana. Babban fa'idar tsarin rubuce-rubucen shine ikonsu na kiyaye bayanan da aka bayyana a cikin harshe, wanda za'a iya dawo dasu ba tare da farkon aikin tsarawa ba.[35]

Amfanin Rubutu

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Babban karatun jarida a Nepal.

An danganta karatu don jin daɗi da haɓaka haɓakar fahimi a cikin ƙamus da lissafi yayin samartaka. [36][37]Ɗaukaka karatun rayuwa mai girma yana da alaƙa da manyan matakan samun ilimi.[38] Bincike ya nuna cewa karatu na iya inganta sarrafa damuwa, [39]ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya, [40]mayar da hankali, [41] basirar rubuce-rubuce, [42] da tunani.[43]. Amfanin fahimi na karatu yana ci gaba har zuwa tsakiyar rayuwa da manyan shekaru.[44]Bincike ya nuna cewa karanta littattafai da rubuce-rubuce na daga cikin ayyukan da ke motsa kwakwalwa da za su iya rage raguwar fahimi a cikin tsofaffi.[45]

Yanayin nasarar karatu

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Duba kuma: Nasarar karantawa: rahotannin ƙasa da ƙasa Karatu ya kasance batun babban bincike da bayar da rahoto shekaru da yawa. Ƙungiyoyi da yawa suna aunawa kuma suna ba da rahoto

Yanayin nasarar karatu

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Duba kuma: Nasarar karantawa: rahotannin ƙasa da ƙasa

Karatu ya kasance batun babban bincike da bayar da rahoto shekaru da yawa. Ƙungiyoyi da yawa suna aunawa da bayar da rahoto game da nasarar karatu ga yara da manya (misali, NAEP, PIRLS, PISA PIAAC, da EQAO). Masu bincike sun kammala cewa kusan kashi 95% na ɗalibai za a iya koya musu karatu a ƙarshen shekara ta farko ko ta biyu ta makaranta, amma duk da haka a ƙasashe da yawa kashi 20% ko sama da haka ba su cika wannan tsammanin ba.[49][50]

Dangane da katin rahoton Nation na 2019, kashi 34% na ɗalibai masu aji huɗu a Amurka[46] sun kasa yin aiki a ko sama da matakin karatu na asali. An sami babban bambanci ta launin fata da ƙabila (misali, ɗaliban baƙar fata a 52% da ɗaliban fararen fata a 23%). Bayan tasirin cutar ta COVID-19, matsakaicin ƙimar karatun asali ya ragu da kashi 3% a cikin 2022.[47] Dubi ƙarin game da ɓarna ta kabilanci a 2019 da 2022 anan. A cewar wani bincike na 2023 a California, yawancin matasa da suka yi amfani da lokaci a wuraren tsare yara na California suna samun takardar shaidar sakandare tare da ƙwarewar karatun digiri. "Akwai yaran da ke samun takardar shaidar kammala sakandare da ba su iya ko da karatu da rubutu." A tsawon shekaru biyar da ya fara a cikin 2018, kashi 85% na waɗannan ɗaliban da suka kammala karatun sakandare ba su ci jarabawar karatun aji na 12 ba.[48]

Tsakanin 2013 da 2022, Jihohin Amurka 30 sun zartar da dokoki ko aiwatar da sabbin manufofi masu alaƙa da koyarwar karatu ta tushen shaida.[49]A cikin 2023, Birnin New York yana shirin buƙatar makarantu don koyar da karatu tare da mai da hankali kan sauti. A wannan garin, kasa da rabin daliban daga aji uku zuwa na takwas na makaranta ne suka samu ƙwararrun jarrabawar karatu na jiha. Fiye da kashi 63% na masu gwajin Baƙar fata da na Hispanic ba su sami maki ba.[50]

A duk faɗin duniya, cutar ta COVID-19 ta haifar da ƙarancin ilimi gabaɗaya a cikin ikon karatu da sauran wuraren ilimi. Ya taso a farkon cutar kuma yana dawwama a cikin lokaci, kuma yana da girma musamman a tsakanin yara daga ƙananan yanayin zamantakewa da tattalin arziki. A cikin Amurka, binciken bincike da yawa ya nuna cewa, idan babu ƙarin tallafi, akwai kusan kashi 90 cikin ɗari na cewa matalauci mai karatu a aji na 1 zai kasance matalauci mai karatu.[51]

A Kanada, lardin Ontario ya ba da rahoton cewa kashi 27% na ɗalibai na aji uku ba su cika ka'idodin karatun lardi ba a cikin 2023.Hakanan a cikin Ontario, 53% na ɗaliban aji uku masu buƙatun ilimi na musamman (ɗaliban da ke da Tsarin Ilimin Mutum), ba su cika k[52]a'idodin lardi ba a cikin 2022.Lardin Nova Scotia ya ba da rahoton cewa kashi 32% na daliban aji uku ba su cika ka'idojin karatun lardin a shekarar 2022 ba. Lardin New Brunswick ya ba da rahoton cewa 43.4% da 30.7% ba su cika Matakan Nasarar Fahimtar Karatu ba na maki huɗu da shida a cikin 2023.[53]

Ci gaban Karatun Karatun Kasa da Kasa (PIRLS) ya buga nasarar karatu ga daliban aji hudu a kasashe 50.[54] Kasashe biyar mafi girman matsakaicin karatun su ne Tarayyar Rasha, Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland da Finland. Wasu kuma sune: Ingila ta 10, Amurka ta 15, Ostiraliya ta 21, Kanada 23, da New Zealand 33.

Shirin da na kimantawa na dalibi na kasa da kasa (Pisa) ya auna daliban ɗaliban makaranta 15 a kan lissafi, kimiyya, da karatu. [55]

Matakan karatun manya, masu shekaru 16-65, a cikin ƙasashe 39 ne Shirin Ƙimar Ƙwararrun Ƙwararru na Ƙasashen Duniya (PIAAC) ya ruwaito.[56]Tsakanin 2011 da 2018, PIAAC ta ba da rahoton adadin manya da ke karatu a matakin ƙasa ko ƙasa na ɗaya (mafi ƙanƙanta na matakai biyar). Wasu misalan sune Japan 4.9%, Finland 10.6%, Netherlands 11.7%, Australia 12.6%, Sweden 13.3%, Canada 16.4%, England (UK) 16.4%, and the United States 16.9% [57]

A cewar Bankin Duniya, kashi 53 cikin 100 na dukkan yara a kasashe masu karamin karfi da matsakaita suna fama da 'koyan talauci'. A cikin 2019, ta yin amfani da bayanai daga Cibiyar Kididdiga ta UNESCO, sun buga wani rahoto mai suna Ending Learning Poverty: Menene zai ɗauka?[58]. Koyon talauci ana bayyana shi da rashin iya karantawa da fahimtar rubutu mai sauƙi ta hanyar shekaru 10.

Ko da yake sun ce duk ƙwarewar tushe suna da mahimmanci, sun haɗa da karatu, ƙididdigewa, ikon tunani na asali, ƙwarewar zamantakewa da motsin rai, da sauransu - suna mai da hankali musamman kan karatu. Dalilinsu shi ne cewa ƙwararrun karatun wani ma’aunin koyo ne cikin sauƙin fahimta, karatu kofa ce ga ɗalibi zuwa koyo a kowane fanni, ƙwarewar karatu na iya zama wakili na tushen koyo a wasu fannoni.

Sun ba da shawarar ginshiƙai guda biyar don rage talauci na ilmantarwa: 1) ɗalibai sun shirya kuma sun himmatu don koyo, 2) malamai a kowane mataki suna da inganci da ƙima, 3) azuzuwan da aka tanadar don koyo, 4) Makarantu suna da aminci da sarari mai haɗawa, da 5) tsarin ilimi ana sarrafa su da kyau.

Koyon karatu

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Masu bincike sun kammala cewa kusan kashi 95% na ɗalibai ana iya koyar da su;

Yanayin Nasarar karatu

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Duba kuma: Nasarar karantawa: rahotannin ƙasa da ƙasa

Karatu ya kasance batun babban bincike da bayar da rahoto shekaru da yawa. Ƙungiyoyi da yawa suna aunawa da bayar da rahoto game da nasarar karatu ga yara da manya (misali, NAEP, PIRLS, PISA PIAAC, da EQAO). Masu bincike sun kammala cewa kusan kashi 95% na ɗalibai za a iya koya musu karatu a ƙarshen shekara ta farko ko ta biyu ta makaranta, amma duk da haka a ƙasashe da yawa kashi 20% ko sama da haka ba su cika wannan tsammanin ba.[59]

Dangane da katin rahoton Nation na 2019, kashi 34% na ɗalibai masu aji huɗu a Amurka sun kasa yin aiki a ko sama da matakin karatu na asali. An sami babban bambanci ta launin fata da ƙabila (misali, ɗaliban baƙar fata a 52% da ɗaliban fararen fata a 23%). Bayan tasirin cutar ta COVID-19, matsakaicin ƙimar karatun asali ya ragu da kashi 3% a cikin 2022.[60]Dubi ƙarin game da ɓarna ta kabilanci a 2019 da 2022 anan. A cewar wani bincike na 2023 a California, yawancin matasa da suka yi amfani da lokaci a wuraren tsare yara na California suna samun takardar shaidar sakandare tare da ƙwarewar karatun digiri. "Akwai yaran da ke samun takardar shaidar kammala sakandare da ba su iya ko da karatu da rubutu." A tsawon shekaru biyar da ya fara a cikin 2018, kashi 85% na waɗannan ɗaliban da suka kammala karatun sakandare ba su ci jarabawar karatun aji na 12 ba.[61]

Tsakanin 2013 da 2022, Jihohin Amurka 30 sun zartar da dokoki ko aiwatar da sabbin manufofi masu alaƙa da koyarwar karatu ta tushen shaida. [62]A cikin 2023, Birnin New York yana shirin buƙatar makarantu don koyar da karatu tare da mai da hankali kan sauti. A wannan garin, kasa da rabin daliban daga aji uku zuwa na takwas na makaranta ne suka samu ƙwararrun jarrabawar karatu na jiha. Fiye da kashi 63% na masu gwajin Baƙar fata da na Hispanic ba su sami maki ba.[63]

A duk faɗin duniya, cutar ta COVID-19 ta haifar da ƙarancin ilimi gabaɗaya a cikin ikon karatu da sauran wuraren ilimi. Ya taso a farkon cutar kuma yana dawwama a cikin lokaci, kuma yana da girma musamman a tsakanin yara daga ƙananan yanayin zamantakewa da tattalin arziki.[64]A cikin Amurka, binciken bincike da yawa ya nuna cewa, idan babu ƙarin tallafi, akwai kusan kashi 90 cikin ɗari na cewa matalauci mai karatu a aji na ɗaya zai kasance matalauci mai karatu.[65]

A Kanada, lardin Ontario ya ba da rahoton cewa kashi 27% na ɗalibai na aji uku ba su cika ka'idodin karatun lardi ba a cikin 2023.[66] Hakanan a cikin Ontario, 53% na ɗaliban aji uku masu buƙatun ilimi na musamman (ɗaliban da ke da Tsarin Ilimin Mutum), ba su cika ka'idodin lardi ba a cikin 2022.[67] Lardin Nova Scotia ya ba da rahoton cewa kashi 32% na daliban aji uku ba su cika ka'idojin karatun lardin a shekarar 2022 ba.Lardin New Brunswick ya ba da rahoton cewa 43.4% da 30.7% ba su cika Matakan Nasarar Fahimtar Karatu ba na maki huɗu da shida a cikin 2023.[68]

Yawancin masu bincike da masana kimiyyar kwakwalwa sun yi ƙoƙari su bayyana yadda kwakwalwar ke karantawa. Sun rubuta labarai da littattafai, kuma sun ƙirƙira gidajen yanar gizo da bidiyon YouTube don taimakawa matsakaicin mabukaci.[69]

Masanin kimiyyar Neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene ya ce ya kamata kowa ya yarda da wasu ‘yan gaskiya masu sauƙi, wato: a) duk yara suna da kwakwale iri ɗaya, suna da kyau sosai ga wasiƙar grapheme-phoneme, “kuma suna da duk abin da za su samu daga phonics – hanya ɗaya da za ta ba da ita. 'yancin karanta kowane rubutu", b) Girman aji ba shi da mahimmanci idan an yi amfani da hanyoyin koyarwa da suka dace, c) yana da mahimmanci a sami daidaitattun gwaje-gwajen gwaji don dyslexia, tare da horo na musamman na musamman, da d) yayin yanke hukunci yana da mahimmanci. , haɓaka ƙamus yana da mahimmanci daidai.[56]

Wani binciken da aka gudanar a Jami'ar Kiwon Lafiya ta South Carolina (MUSC) a cikin 2022 ya nuna cewa "mafi girman asymmetry na kwakwalwa na hagu na iya yin hasashen duka mafi kyawun aiki da matsakaicin aiki akan matakin tushe na ikon karatu, gwargwadon ko ana gudanar da bincike akan duka kwakwalwa ko a cikin yankuna na musamman”.[70]An sami alaƙa tsakanin takamaiman yankuna na kwakwalwa a cikin sashin hagu na ƙwayar ƙwayar cuta yayin ayyukan karatu daban-daban.[69]

Ko da yake ba a haɗa shi cikin mafi yawan nazarin meta-bincike ba, ƙwaƙƙwarar sensorimotor na kwakwalwa shine yanki mafi aiki na kwakwalwa yayin karatu. Ana yin watsi da wannan sau da yawa saboda an haɗa shi da motsi kawai;[71]duk da haka, nazarin fMRI na 2014 wanda ya shafi manya da mahalarta yara, inda aka ƙuntata motsin jiki, ya nuna shaida mai karfi da ke nuna cewa wannan yanki na iya zama dangantaka da sarrafa kalmomi ta atomatik da kuma yanke hukunci. [72] Sakamakon wannan binciken ya gano cewa wannan ɓangaren kwakwalwar yana aiki sosai a cikin mutanen da ke koyo / fama da karatu (yara, waɗanda aka gano suna da dyslexia, da waɗanda suka saba zuwa harshen Ingilishi) da rashin aiki a cikin manyan masu karatu.[73]

Lobes na occipital da parietal, ko kuma musamman fusiform gyrus, sun haɗa da yankin sigar kalma na gani na kwakwalwa (VWFA).[74]An yi imanin VWFA ita ce ke da alhakin ikon iya karantawa a gani.[74]Wannan yanki na kwakwalwa yana son kunnawa lokacin da aka gabatar da kalmomi ta hanyar rubutu, kamar yadda aka samu a cikin wani bincike a 2002 inda aka gabatar da mahalarta da kalmomi da abubuwan da ba na magana ba.[75]. A lokacin gabatar da kalmomin motsa jiki, wannan ɓangaren kwakwalwa yana aiki sosai; duk da haka, yayin gabatar da abubuwan motsa jiki waɗanda ba su ƙunshi graphemes ba kwakwalwa ba ta da aiki. Mahalarta masu fama da dyslexia sun kasance mafifici, tare da wannan yanki na kwakwalwa yana ci gaba da aiki a cikin al'amuran biyu.[76]

Manyan yankuna biyu na kwakwalwar da ke da alaƙa da ƙwarewar sauti sune yanki na ɗan lokaci-parietal da yankin Perisylvian.[77] A cikin wani binciken fMRI da aka gudanar a shekara ta 2001, an gabatar da mahalarta da rubutattun kalmomi, kalmomi na mitar magana, da kuma kalmomin karya.[78] Sashin dorsal (na sama) na yanki na wucin gadi-parietal shine mafi yawan aiki yayin kalmomin karya kuma ɓangaren ventral (ƙananan) ya fi aiki yayin kalmomin mitar, ban da batutuwan da aka gano suna da dyslexia, waɗanda ba su nuna lahani ga su ba. yankin na huhu amma rashin kunnawa a sashin baya[79]

Yankin Perisylvian, wanda shine ɓangaren kwakwalwar da aka yi imanin ya haɗa yankin Broca's da Wernicke, [80]wani yanki ne da ke aiki sosai a lokacin ayyukan sauti inda ake tambayar mahalarta su faɗi kalmomin da aka sani da waɗanda ba a sani ba.[81]. Lalacewar wannan bangare na wannan kwakwalwa kai tsaye yana shafar ikon mutum na yin magana a hade tare da hankali; Bugu da ƙari, wannan ɓangaren aikin kwakwalwa ya kasance daidai ga masu karatu na dyslexic da marasa dyslexic.[82]

Yankin gaba na baya yanki ne mai rikitarwa da yawa na kwakwalwa, kuma dangantakarsa da karatu ba lallai ba ne a layi daya, saboda yana aiki a cikin ayyukan karatu da yawa.[83] Yawancin karatu sun rubuta ayyukansa tare da fahimta da ƙwarewar sarrafawa, da kuma rubutun rubutu da ƙwaƙwalwar aiki.[84]Duk da cewa ainihin rawar da wannan sashin na kwakwalwa ke tafkawa har yanzu ana tafka muhawara, bincike da dama na nuni da cewa wannan fanni na kwakwalwa yakan kara kaimi ga masu karatu wadanda suka kamu da cutar ta dyslexia kuma ba su da aiki yayin da aka samu nasarar yin magani[85]

Baya ga yankuna a kan cortex, wanda ake la'akari da launin toka a kan fMRI's, akwai nau'i-nau'i masu launin fata da yawa waɗanda kuma suke aiki yayin ayyukan karatu daban-daban.[86]Waɗannan yankuna guda uku sune ke haɗa yankuna uku masu daraja kamar yadda kwakwalwa ke karantawa, don haka ita ce ke da alhakin haɗar ƙirar ƙirar kwakwalwar da ke cikin karatu.[73]Faciculus masu haɗin kai guda uku waɗanda ke yin aiki sosai yayin karatu sune kamar haka: arcuate faciculus na hagu, na hagu na hagu na tsayin tsayi, da babban faciculus mai tsayi[87]

Sauran nau'ikan karatu da rubutu, kamar hotuna (misali, alamar haɗari da emoji), ba su dogara da tsarin rubutu na tushen magana ba.[7] Haɗin da aka gama gama gari shine fassarar alamomi don fitar da ma'anar daga abubuwan gani ko siginoni masu taɓawa (kamar yadda yake a cikin ma'anar maɗaukaki).[8].

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/read
  2. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-861243-5
  3. ↑ https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/read
  4. ↑ https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/read
  5. ↑ https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf
  6. ↑ https://www.readingrockets.org/article/what-reading
  7. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-0270-3
  8. ↑ https://www.afb.org/blindness-and-low-vision/braille/what-braille
  9. ↑ http://www.stanford.edu/class/history34q/readings/Manguel/Silent_Readers.html
  10. ↑ https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/how-read-medieval-handwriting-paleography
  11. ↑ http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/36269/1/Powelletal.JECP2007Revised_post_print%5B1%5D.pdf
  12. ↑ https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2019/09/love-reading-books-leisure-pleasure/598315/
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/literate
  14. ↑ https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/literacy
  15. ↑ https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03071028308567568
  16. ↑ https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/literacy?q=literacy
  17. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20210815234944/http://www.eli-net.eu/fileadmin/ELINET/Redaktion/user_upload/European_Declaration_of_the_Right_to_Literacy2.pdf
  18. ↑ http://gaml.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2018/12/4.6.1_07_4.6-defining-literacy.pdf
  19. ↑ http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publications/Skills_Matter_Additonal_Results_from_the_Survey_of_Adult_Skills_ENG.pdf
  20. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-64-79900-4
  21. ↑ https://literacytrust.org.uk/information/what-is-literacy/
  22. ↑ https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/Pages/introduction-to-literacy-in-english.aspx
  23. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20210204012454/https://www.literacyworldwide.org/about-us/why-literacy
  24. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20210204012454/https://www.literacyworldwide.org/about-us/why-literacy
  25. ↑ https://nces.ed.gov/naal/fr_definition.asp
  26. ↑ https://nces.ed.gov/naal/fr_definition.asp
  27. ↑ https://www.nap.edu/download/11267
  28. ↑ https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/blog/a-brief-history-of-the-quantitative-literacy-movement/
  29. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8790-909-3
  30. ↑ https://education.alberta.ca/literacy-and-numeracy/about-literacy-and-numeracy/
  31. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25356-7
  32. ↑ https://archive.org/details/ecologicallitera0000orrd
  33. ↑ https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315015712
  34. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World%27s_Writing_Systems
  35. ↑ http://www.cls.ioe.ac.uk/news.aspx?itemid=2740&itemTitle=Reading+for+pleasure+puts+children+ahead+in+the+classroom%2C+study+finds&sitesectionid=27&sitesectiontitle=News&returnlink=news.aspx%3Fsitesectionid%3D27%26sitesectiontitle%3DNews%26from%3D01%2F09%2F2013%26to%3D01%2F10%2F2013%26range%3DSeptember%25202013/
  36. ↑ http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10021113/
  37. ↑ https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244018780946
  38. ↑ https://www.businessinsider.com/14-reasons-why-reading-is-good-for-your-health-2016-12
  39. ↑ "Kwafin ajiya". Archived from the original on 2023-11-01. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
  40. ↑ https://whytoread.com/imagination-why-reading-makes-you-more-creative/
  41. ↑ http://www.cls.ioe.ac.uk/news.aspx?itemid=3101&itemTitle=Long-term+vocabulary+benefits+from+%E2%80%98reading+for+pleasure%E2%80%99+in+childhood&sitesectionid=27&sitesectiontitle=News&returnlink=news.aspx%3Fsitesectionid%3D27%26sitesectiontitle%3DNews%26page%3D2/
  42. ↑ http://llcsjournal.org/index.php/llcs/article/view/310
  43. ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5105607
  44. ↑ http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/science/2013/07/being-a-lifelong-bookworm-may-keep-you-sharp-in-old-age/
  45. ↑ https://www.aft.org/ae/fall2004/torgesen
  46. ↑ https://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/education/ny-nyc-mandate-public-schools-teach-reading-phonics-20230509-twzrkyjkqjgxhnnpzz3dcmqt7i-story.html
  47. ↑ https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/moats.pdf
  48. ↑ https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading/nation/scores/?grade=4
  49. ↑ https://edsource.org/2023/in-californias-youth-justice-system-high-school-graduates-with-grade-school-reading-skills/688955
  50. ↑ https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/which-states-have-passed-science-of-reading-laws-whats-in-them/2022/07
  51. ↑ https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41562-022-01506-4
  52. ↑ https://amplify.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Amplify-mCLASS_MOY-COVID-Learning-Loss-Research-Brief_022421.pdf?_gl=1*19gt681*_ga*MTI4MzE4Njc3MS4xNjQ1ODk1NzM5*_ga_KB37BKPPF6*MTY4NjA1OTU1NS4yLjEuMTY4NjA1OTYzOC42MC4wLjA
  53. ↑ https://www.readingrockets.org/article/waiting-rarely-works-late-bloomers-usually-just-wilt
  54. ↑ https://www.eqao.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/infographic-provincial-results-2023-g3.pdf
  55. ↑ https://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/right-to-read-inquiry-report/executive-summary
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 https://plans.ednet.ns.ca/sites/default/files/documents/2021-22-LM3.pdf
  57. ↑ https://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/ed/pdf/K12/results/grade-4-6-english-reading.pdf
  58. ↑ https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pirls/
  59. ↑ http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/international-results/wp-content/uploads/structure/PIRLS/3.-achievement-in-purposes-and-comprehension-processes/3_1_achievement-in-reading-purposes.pdf
  60. ↑ https://qz.com/1147045/singapores-fourth-graders-read-at-the-most-advanced-level-in-a-global-test-of-literacy/
  61. ↑ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/664562/PIRLS_2016_National_Report_for_England-_BRANDED.pdf
  62. ↑ http://www.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/
  63. ↑ https://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/
  64. ↑ https://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/Skills%20volume%201%20(eng)--full%20v12--eBook%20(04%2011%202013).pdf
  65. ↑ https://hdl.handle.net/10986%2F32553
  66. ↑ "Kwafin ajiya" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-12. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
  67. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20201031124749/https://www.cgcc.edu/literacy/resources/four-basic-language-skills
  68. ↑ https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/skills
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 https://www.nsba.org/-/media/NSBA/File/cpe-learning-to-read-reading-to-learn-white-paper-2015.pdf?la=en&hash=8E0E470C3E263C66E4491EC035224DC9018C6D5F
  70. ↑ https://www.ccf.ny.gov/files/9013/8262/2751/AECFReporReadingGrade3.pdf
  71. ↑ https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading/nation/achievement/?grade=4
  72. ↑ https://www.bbc.com/news/education-20346204
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 http://education.ohio.gov/Topics/Learning-in-Ohio/Literacy/Third-Grade-Reading-Guarantee
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 http://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Learning-in-Ohio/English-Language-Art/English-Language-Arts-Standards/ELA-Learning-Standards-2017.pdf.aspx?lang=en-US
  75. ↑ https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-primary-curriculum
  76. ↑ https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pirls/pirls2016/tables/pirls2016_table01.asp
  77. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-08065-6
  78. ↑ https://archive.org/details/handbookofreadin0003unse
  79. ↑ https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.106.3.491
  80. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20210121211638/http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/RF/K/
  81. ↑ https://researched.org.uk/2019/06/24/d_-y_u-kn_w-wh_t-i-me_n-reading-for-inference/
  82. ↑ https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-1031%2873%2980005-8
  83. ↑ http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/13719/3/Lucy%20RC%20paper%20revised%20CRO.pdf
  84. ↑ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22506889
  85. ↑ https://www.nifdi.org/news/hempenstall-blog/441-part-1-whole-language-what-was-that-all-about
  86. ↑ https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143275563
  87. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20210116180435/http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/mar98/vol55/num06/Why-Reading-Is-Not-a-Natural-Process.aspx
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