Dokar gurbataccen mai ta 1990 (OPA) (101 HR1465, PL 101-380) ta zartar da Majalisar Dokokin Amurka ta 101 kuma Shugaba George HW Bush ya sanya hannu. Yana aiki don guje wa zubar da mai daga tasoshin ruwa da wurare ta hanyar aiwatar da cire man da ya zube da kuma ba da alhakin farashin tsaftacewa da lalacewa; yana buƙatar takamaiman hanyoyin aiki; ya kuma bayyana ƙungiyoyi masu alhakin da alhakin kuɗi; aiwatar da matakai don auna lalacewa; yana ƙayyadad da diyya wanda masu cin zarafi ke da alhakinsa; kuma ya kafa asusu don lalacewa, tsaftacewa, da farashin cirewa. Wannan doka ta haifar da sauye-sauye na kayan aiki a cikin samar da man fetur, sufuri, da Kuma masana'antu.

Dokar gurbataccen mai ta 1990
Act of Congress in the United States (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙasa Tarayyar Amurka
Applies to jurisdiction (en) Fassara Tarayyar Amurka
Legislated by (en) Fassara 101st United States Congress (en) Fassara
Signatory (en) Fassara George H. W. Bush (mul) Fassara

Tarihi/Baya

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Yawan mai kamar yadda ake iya gani a saman ruwa a cikin Yarima William Sound sakamakon malalar mai na Exxon Valdez .

Dokokin da ke tafiyar da zubewar mai a Amurka sun fara ne a shekara ta 1851 tare da Dokar Iyakan Laifin Laifi . Wannan mutum-mutumin, a wani yunƙuri na kare masana'antar jigilar kayayyaki, ya bayyana cewa masu jiragen ruwa suna da alhakin kashe kuɗin da suka shafi abin da ya faru har zuwa ƙimar jirgin ruwansu bayan faruwar lamarin. An bayyana gazawar wannan doka a cikin shekarata 1967 tare da sakin sama da tan 100,000 na danyen mai a cikin tashar Turanci daga Torrey Canyon . Daga cikin dala miliyan 8 na kudaden da suka shafi tsaftacewa, masu mallakar Torrey Canyon suna da alhakin dala 50 kawai - ƙimar ragowar jirgin ruwan Torrey Canyon. A halin da ake ciki, dokar gurbacewar mai ta shekarar 1924 ta wuce, amma wannan mutum-mutumin kawai yana da iyakacin alhakin fitar da mai da gangan a cikin ruwan teku.

Shekaru biyu bayan malalar Torrey Canyon, fashewar wani dandali na mai a tashar Santa Barbara ya sanya kanun labarai na kasa tare da sanya gurbacewar mai zuwa hasken wurin jama'a. Sakamakon haka, a cikin shekarata 1970, Majalisa ta sanya gurɓataccen mai a ƙarƙashin ikon Dokar Kula da Ruwa ta Tarayya (FWPA) ta shekarar 1965, wacce daga baya ta zama Dokar Tsabtace Ruwa ta 1972 kuma a baya ta rufe najasa da fitarwar masana'antu. FWPA ta saita takamaiman iyakokin abin alhaki. Misali, jiragen ruwa da ke jigilar mai ana biyansu har dala kimanin 250,000 ko dala 150 kan kowace tan. Waɗannan iyakoki ba safai suke rufe farashin cirewa da tsaftacewa ba, balle barna.

A cikin shekarun da suka biyo baya, an zartar da wasu dokoki da dama da suka shafi alhakin malalar man da kuma biyan diyya. Waɗannan mutum-mutumin sun haɗa da: Dokar Tsaro ta Tashoshi da Ruwa na shekarar 1972, Dokar Ba da izinin bututun mai na Trans-Alaska na 1973, Dokar Tashar Ruwa ta Deep Water na shekarar 1974, Dokar Filayen Shelf Lands na waje na shekarata 1978, da Hukumar Zuba Mai na Alaska na shekarata 1990. Duk da haka, wannan rarrabuwar kawuna na dokokin tarayya da na jihohi sun ba da ƙayyadaddun kariya kawai daga haɗarin malalar mai. A cikin 1976, an gabatar da wani doka don ƙirƙirar ma'auni mai aminci ga ƙazantar mai ga Majalisa. Majalisar Wakilai ko Majalisar Dattawa ba za su iya amincewa da mutum-mutumi guda ɗaya ba kuma dokar ta ɓace sau da yawa.

A ranar 24 ga Maris, shekarata 1989, Exxon Valdez ya fado a cikin sautin Yarima Williams kuma ya zubar da kusan galan miliyan 11 na danyen mai - mafi girman zubewar mai a cikin ruwa a tarihi har zuwa wannan lokacin. Ba da daɗewa ba, a cikin Yunin shekarata 1989, ƙananan malalewa uku sun faru a cikin tekun Amurka. Wannan shaida ce akan lokaci cewa malalar man ba bakon abu ba ne.

Gwamnan Alaska Steve Cowper ya ba da izinin ƙirƙirar Hukumar Kula da Mai na Alaska a shekarata 1989 don bincika musabbabin malalar mai na Exxon Valdez tare da ba da shawarwari kan yuwuwar sauye-sauyen manufofin. Cowper ya nada Walter B. Parker, mai ba da shawara kan harkokin sufuri da kuma jami'in gwamnati, a matsayin shugaban hukumar. A karkashin Parker, Hukumar ta ba da shawarwari 52 don inganta masana'antu, jihohi, da dokokin tarayya. [1] 50 daga cikin waɗannan shawarwarin an yi aiki a cikin lissafin dokar gurɓataccen wanda aka gabatar da shi a cikin doka a ranar 16 ga Maris, Na shekarar 1989 ta Walter B. Jones, Sr., ɗan majalissar jam'iyyar Democratic Party daga gundumar 1st Congress na North Carolina . [1]

Lokacin aiwatarwa

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  • Maris 16, 1989: An gabatar da dokar gurɓacewar mai a cikin tsarin doka don aiwatarwa.
  • Yuni 21 na 1989: kwamitin ya ruwaito kuma ya ba da shawarar cewa duka majalisun biyu su yi la'akari da lissafin gaba. Kusan kashi 1 cikin 4 ne kawai aka bayar da rahoton ba sa cikin kwamitin.
  • Nuwamba 9, 1989: An zartar da dokar ta hanyar kuri'a a majalisar wakilai .
  • Nuwamba 19, 1989: Majalisar dattijai ta zartar da dokar tare da bita . An mayar da kudirin dokar ga majalisar wakilai domin amincewa da sauye-sauyen da majalisar ta kara. Sai dai majalisar ba ta amince da sake fasalin ba.
  • Agusta 2 na 1990: An kafa kwamitin taro, ciki har da 'yan Majalisar Wakilai da Majalisar Dattijai, don warware bambance-bambance da ba da shawara na karshe don amincewa. Da farko dai Majalisar Dattawa ta amince da rahoton karshe da kwamitin ya gabatar.
  • Agusta 4 na 1990: duka majalisun biyu sun wuce lissafin a cikin tsari iri ɗaya. Matakin karshe a tsarin majalisar shi ne kudurin ya je gaban shugaban kasa ko dai ya amince da sa hannu ko kuma ya ki amincewa da shi.
  • Agusta 18 na 1990: Shugaban kasa ya sanya hannu kan dokar kuma an kafa dokar gurbacewar mai a hukumance.

Mabuɗin Abun ciki (Tittuna)

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Take I. Lamuni da Diyya da Gurbacewar Mai

Take II. Daidaita Canje-canje

Take III. Kariya da Kawar da Gurbacewar Mai ta Duniya

Take IV. Rigakafi da Cirewa

Subtitle A - Rigakafin

Subtitle B – Cire

Subtitle C - Hukunci da Daban-daban

Take V. Yarima William Sauti Tanadi

Take VI. Daban-daban

Take VII. Shirin Bincike da Ci Gaban Gurbacewar Mai

Take na VIII. Tsarin Pipeline na Trans-Alaska

Subtitle A - Ingantawa zuwa Tsarin Bututun Alaska

Subtitle B - Hukunci

Subtitle C - Sharuɗɗan da suka dace ga ƴan Asalin Alaska

Take IX. Canje-canje ga Asusun Tallafin Lantarki na Mai, da dai sauransu.

tilastawa

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Wanda ke da alhaki a ƙarƙashin dokar gurɓacewar mai shine wanda aka same shi da alhakin fitar da mai ko kuma barazanar zubar da mai daga wani jirgin ruwa ko wurin aiki zuwa cikin ruwa masu tafiya, yankunan tattalin arziki na keɓantattu, ko gaɓar ruwan da aka rufe. Bangarorin da ke da alhakin fitar da man, suna da hakki, na hadin gwiwa, kuma suna da alhakin kashe kudin cire man baya ga duk wata barna da ke da alaka da fitar da man. Ba kamar abin alhaki na farashin cirewa wanda ba a cika shi ba, alhakin lalacewa yana iyakance kamar yadda aka tattauna dalla-dalla a ƙasa. Bugu da ƙari Kuma, Dokar Gurɓatar Mai ta ba da damar ƙarin alhakin da wasu dokokin jihar suka zartar.

A karkashin dokar gurbacewar man fetur, tarayya, kabilanci, jiha, da kowane mutum na iya dawo da kudaden cirewa daga wanda ke da alhakin hakan muddin irin wannan mahallin ya ci karo da farashi daga gudanar da ayyukan kawar da mai kamar yadda Dokar Tsabtace Ruwa ta Kasa ta tanada . Dole ne a fara da'awar biya ga wanda ke da alhakin. Idan mai yuwuwar wanda ke da alhakin ya musanta alhakin ko ya kasa rarraba kuɗin a cikin kwanaki 90 na da'awar, mai da'awar na iya shigar da kara a kotu ko kuma ya kawo da'awar ga Asusun Amincewa da Lamuni na Mai da aka bayyana a ƙasa. A wasu lokatai, ana iya fara kawo da'awar dawo da kuɗin zuwa Asusun Tallafawar Oil Spill Liability Trust don haka a kaucewa wanda ke da alhakin. Misali, masu da'awar da EPA suka ba da shawara, gwamnonin jihohin da abin ya shafa, da masu da'awar Amurka game da abubuwan da suka shafi jiragen ruwa ko kayan aiki na kasashen waje na iya gabatar da da'awarsu da farko ga Asusun Tallafin Lantarki na Oil Spill. Lokacin da aka kawo iƙirarin biyan kuɗin cirewa a asusun, mai da'awar dole ne ya tabbatar da cewa an dawwama farashin cirewa daga ayyukan da ake buƙata don gujewa ko rage tasirin abin da ya faru kuma mai gudanar da fage na tarayya ya amince da dukkan irin waɗannan ayyukan.

Kamar yadda aka kwatanta a sama, ana iya dawo da kuɗin diyya daga wanda ke da alhakin. Koyaya, dokar gurɓacewar mai ta shafi wasu nau'ikan lalacewa kawai. Waɗannan nau'o'in sun haɗa da: lalacewar albarkatun ƙasa, lalacewa ga dukiya ko na mutum, asarar kayan abinci, asarar kudaden shiga na gwamnati, asarar riba ko gazawar samun riba, lalacewar ayyukan jama'a, da kuma lalacewar ƙima. Bugu da kari, ana iya dawo da wasu nau'ikan ga duk mutumin da lamarin ya shafa yayin da wasu kuma gwamnatocin tarayya, na kabilanci, da na jihohi ne kawai za a iya dawo dasu. Bugu da ƙari kuma, dokar gurɓacewar mai ta ƙayyade iyaka ga abin alhaki na lalacewa bisa ga wanda ke da alhakin, abin da ya faru, da nau'in jirgin ruwa ko kayan aikin da aka fitar da shi.

Asusun Tallafawa Alkairi na Oil Spill Liability Trust, asusun amincewa ne da gwamnatin tarayya ke kula da shi da kuma samun kudin shiga ta hanyar harajin kowace ganga kan danyen mai da ake hakowa a cikin gida a Amurka da kuma kan kayayyakin man fetur da ake shigowa da su Amurka domin ci. An ƙirƙiri asusun ne a cikin shekarata 1986, amma ba a ba da izinin amfani da asusun ba har sai da dokar gurɓacewar mai a shekarata 1990. Ana iya kiran kuɗaɗen don biyan kuɗin tarayya, kabilanci, jaha, da masu da'awar kawar da ayyukan kawar da malalar mai da kuma kimanta lalacewar da ba a biya ba da kuma lamuni. Ba za a iya fitar da fiye da dala biliyan ɗaya daga asusun a kowane abin da ya faru ba. Sama da shekaru ashirin na shari'o'in kotu sun nuna cewa samun kudade daga Asusun Lamuni na Zuba Jari na Mai na iya zama aiki mai wahala.

Damuwa da martani

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Shugaba Bush ya amince da sauye-sauyen da duniya za ta iya fuskanta yayin sanya hannu kan dokar gurbacewar mai a sakamakon haka, ya matsawa majalisar dattijai da ta gaggauta amincewa da sabbin ka'idojin kasa da kasa. Abubuwan da aka samu daga masana'antu sun kasance mara kyau. Masana'antu sun nuna rashin amincewarsu da cewa dokar gurbacewar mai za ta kawo cikas ga harkokin cinikin man da ake shigowa da su cikin ruwan Amurka cikin 'yanci. Ba wai kawai OPA ta sanya takunkumi kan cinikin mai da ake shigo da shi zuwa ketare ba, har ma tana aiwatar da ka'idojin man fetur da kuma ka'idojin diyya, wanda suke kallo a matsayin kara takaita ciniki cikin 'yanci. Bayan kafa OPA, masana'antar jigilar kayayyaki ta yi barazanar kauracewa tashoshin jiragen ruwa na Amurka don nuna adawa da wannan sabon alhaki na masana'antu a cikin dokokin tarayya da na jihohi. Musamman ma, masana'antun man fetur da na jigilar kayayyaki sun nuna adawa da rashin daidaito tsakanin OPA da dokokin kasa da kasa, Kuma tarayya da jihohi da abin ya shafa. Sakamakon dokar OPA, wasu kamfanonin inshora sun ƙi ba da takaddun shaida na kuɗin kuɗi a ƙarƙashin dokar gurɓataccen mai don guje wa yuwuwar alhakin da kuma biyan diyya a yanayin bala'i.

Shugaba Bush ya kuma yi hasashen cewa kafa OPA na iya haifar da manyan kamfanonin jigilar mai da kananan kamfanonin jigilar kayayyaki su maye gurbinsu da su domin kaucewa wani abin alhaki. Musamman ma, ƙananan kamfanoni masu iyakacin albarkatu ba za su rasa kuɗin da za su magance bala'o'in malalar mai ba. Ba wai kawai masana'antar mai ba, har ma masu mallakar jiragen ruwa da masu gudanar da aikin za su kasance da alhakin malalar mai, suna fuskantar karuwar nauyin kudi. Ƙaruwar alhaki na OPA ga masu jirgin ruwa ya haifar da tsoro da damuwa daga yawancin masana'antar jigilar kaya. Masu mallakar jiragen ruwa sun ki amincewa da cewa ƙarin hukumcin malalar man da jihohi suka sanya ba su da iyaka daga iyakokin OPA na Dokar Ƙimar Lamuni na shekarar 1851 . A ƙarshe, barazanar rashin iyaka a ƙarƙashin OPA da sauran dokokin jihohi ya sa kamfanoni masu jigilar mai da yawa rage cinikin mai zuwa ko daga tashar jiragen ruwa na Amurka.

Koyaya, an sami sakamako mai kyau daga masana'antar mai duk da sabbin ka'idoji da ka'idoji. A cikin shekarata 1990, masana'antar mai ta haɗu don samar da Marine Spill Response Corporation (MRSC), kamfani mai zaman kansa wanda masu kera mai da masu jigilar kayayyaki za su biya diyya. Babban alhakin MRSC shine samar da sabbin tsare-tsare na mayar da martani don tsaftace zubar da mai da kuma gyaran da OPA ke bukata. Kamfanonin jigilar kayayyaki irin su Exxon Shipping sun mayar da martani mai kyau ga yunƙurin OPA na rage haɗarin da ke tattare da bala'in malalar mai. Don taimakawa tabbatar da bin ka'idodin OPA, Exxon Shipping ya tattara duk dokokin jihohi da tarayya waɗanda dole ne su bi su. Yawancin kamfanoni masu zaman kansu da na Amurka da ma'aikata, duk da haka, na iya guje wa ayyuka a tashoshin jiragen ruwa na Amurka saboda alhakin OPA. Ko da yake galibin martani da suka daga kafa OPA ba su da kyau, amma duk da haka ya haifar da kafawa da ƙirƙira mafi aminci ga jiragen ruwa da cinikin mai a duniya.

Tasirin OPA na dogon lokaci

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Dokar gurɓacewar mai tana haifar da tasiri na dogon lokaci saboda yuwuwar haƙƙin masu inshora da masu inshora. Don haka, rashin iya samun tabbacin abin alhaki na kuɗi yana haifar da rashin samun damar jiragen ruwa a cikin ruwa na Amurka bisa doka. Tun da OPA ba ta keɓance masu ba da lamuni na jirgin ruwa shiga cikin ruwan Amurka, akwai rashin jin daɗi ga kowane mai ba da lamuni don ba da kuɗin sabuntar jiragen ruwa da maye gurbinsu. A ƙarshe, OPA tana da ikon yin tasiri kai tsaye ga masana'antar haƙon mai na cikin gida saboda tsayayyen tanadin kayan aikin a cikin teku gaba daya.

  1. Alhakin kudi: Jami'an tsaron gabar tekun Amurka ne ke da alhakin aiwatar da tanade-tanaden jiragen ruwa da dokar gurbacewar mai ta tanada. A cewar OPA, masu jirgin ruwa suna buƙatar shaidar alhaki na kuɗi wanda ke ɗaukar cikakken alhakin bala'i idan jirginsu ya yi nauyi sama da tan 300. OPA na buƙatar masu mallakar jiragen ruwa da su nemi Guard Coast don samun "Takaddun Nauyin Kuɗi" wanda ke zama shaida na ikonsu na samun kuɗin kuɗi don tsaftacewa da lalacewar malalar mai. Idan aka yi la'akari da wani jirgin ruwa da ba a tabbatar da shi ba ya shiga cikin ruwan Amurka, za a kwace jirgin zuwa Amurka. Wannan ba sabuwar yarjejeniya ba ce saboda ko da yaushe ana ba wa masu jirgin ruwa izinin samun takaddun shaida a ƙarƙashin FWPCA 74 da Comprehensive Response Comprehensive Response Comprehensive and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA) . Tun daga shekarata 2011, sama da jiragen ruwa 23,000 sun sami Takaddun Takaddun Kare Tekun don ba da damar shiga ruwan Amurka
  2. Abubuwan da suka dace don maye gurbin jiragen ruwa da kuma zamanantar da su: Tunda dokar gurbacewar mai ta daure masu ruwa da tsaki, hakan ya haifar da rashin jin dadi ga kamfanonin mai wajen safarar danyen mai a cikin tasoshinsu da kuma masu hayar mai su rika jigilar mai a cikin tasoshin da suka dace. Yawancin kamfanonin mai da suka yi nasara a fannin kuɗi suna zaɓar mafi ingancin jiragen ruwa don jigilar kayayyakinsu, duk da haka, wasu kamfanoni suna ci gaba da jigilar kayansu akan ƙarancin inganci, tsofaffin tasoshin saboda tsadar farashi. Yawancin masu haya sun ƙi biyan ƙarin kuɗi don manyan jiragen ruwa duk da alhakin abin alhaki da ka'idojin biyan diyya da OPA ke aiwatarwa. Sabbin jiragen ruwa masu aminci kuma mafi aminci ga manyan tankuna biyu sun fi kusan 15-20% tsada don aiki. A cikin shekarata 1992, kusan 60% na jiragen ruwa na duniya sun kasance aƙalla shekaru goma sha biyar ko fiye. Manyan kamfanonin mai har yanzu suna jinkirta buƙatun maye gurbin jiragen ruwa na ritayar jiragen ruwa guda ɗaya da OPA ta umarta. Alal misali, Exxon da Texaco sun jinkirta maye gurbin jiragen ruwa guda ɗaya don sababbin jiragen ruwa guda biyu. Duk da haka, kamfanoni kamar Chevron da Mobil sun ba da odar sabbin jiragen ruwa guda biyu. Jagoranci ta misali, sauran kamfanoni masu zaman kansu na jigilar kayayyaki don saka hannun jari a cikin sabbin motocin dakon mai. Duk da canjin da aka samu daga jiragen ruwa guda zuwa biyu, har yanzu bai wadatar da isassun bukatu na masana'antar mai ba. Ana sa ran cewa a cikin shekaru goma masu zuwa za a yi mummunar rashin isasshen tonne don biyan buƙatun sabbin jiragen ruwa. An kiyasta cewa dole ne masana'antar mai ta duniya su zuba jari kusan dala biliyan 200-350 don biyan bukatun duniya na sabbin jiragen ruwa da muhalli. [2]
  3. Samar da cikin gida: A cikin dokar gurɓacewar mai, Guard Coast Guard na Amurka ne ke da alhakin tantance tsarin aikace-aikacen jiragen ruwa, duk da haka, Ma'aikatar Harkokin Cikin Gida ta Ofishin Kula da Makamashin Teku (BOEM) tana aiwatar da aiwatar da duk ƙa'idodin Dokar Gurɓacewar Mai na tekun. wuraren mai. A karkashin OPA, an ba wa masu alhakin alhakin bayar da shaida da ke bayyana alhakin kuɗi na dala miliyan kusan 150 don yuwuwar alhaki. Idan wata ƙungiya ba za ta iya ba da shaidar da ke bayyana alhakin kuɗi na dala miliyan 150 ba, za a biya su hukuncin dala 25,000 a kowace rana wanda ya saba wa OPA kuma yana iya fuskantar hukuncin shari'a na dakatar da duk ayyukan. [2]

Kafin aiwatar da gurɓacewar mai, an buƙaci wuraren da ke cikin teku su ba da shaidar da ta bayyana alhakin kuɗi na dala miliyan 35. Bayan OPA, waɗannan wuraren da ke bakin teku dole ne su ƙara tabbatar da alhakin kuɗi da sau 4 kuma buƙatun OPA na alhakin kuɗi sun faɗaɗa don haɗa kayan aiki a cikin ruwan jihar ma. Wuraren da ke cikin ruwan jihar waɗanda ke ƙarƙashin abin da ake buƙata na dala miliyan 150 sun haɗa da bututun mai, tashar jiragen ruwa na marina, tankuna, da wuraren samar da mai waɗanda ke cikin, a kan, ko ƙarƙashin ruwan tekun jihar, kuma suna kusa da tashoshi na cikin gida, tafkuna, da wuraren dausayi . Mafi bayyanan tasirin dokar OPA, shine akan masu samar da mai a cikin Tekun Mexico . Yawancin wuraren da ke bakin teku suna cikin Tekun Fasha na Mexico da kuma a cikin marshes da wuraren dausayi na Louisiana . Manyan masu kera kayayyaki suna iya biyan bukatun OPA na alhakin kuɗi, duk da haka, manyan kamfanonin mai da ke cikin Tekun Mexico sun janye ayyukansu na ketare.

Sakamakon matsin lamba na muhalli da ƙaƙƙarfan ƙa'idodin gwamnati da OPA ke aiwatarwa, an janye ƙwararrun shawarwari na bincike da samarwa a Amurka. Sakamakon yadda manyan kamfanoni suka janye shirinsu na hakowa, da yawa kanana, masu sana'a masu zaman kansu sun shiga don samun riba. Ya zuwa Oktoban shekarar 1993, kashi 93% na dukkan hako man fetur da iskar gas sun fito ne daga masu samar da zaman kansu. Daga cikin sabbin ayyukan binciken, kusan kashi 85% na ayyukan hakowa na cikin Tekun Mexico. Masu samar da mai masu zaman kansu sun samar da kusan kashi 40% na danyen mai a ƙasar Amurka da kashi 60% na iskar gas na cikin gida.

Yarjejeniyoyi na duniya

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Dangane da matsalar gurbatar man fetur da wasu kasashe (musamman jiragen ruwa) ke haddasawa, yarjejeniyoyin kasa da kasa irinsu Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan Alhaki kan Lalacewar gurbatar Man Fetur da Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan Alhaki na Lalacewar gurbatar Man Fetur wadanda ke da irin wannan niyya kamar Dokar, sun Amurka ba ta sanya hannu ba, kamar yadda aka yi la'akari da cewa dokar gurbacewar mai ta ba da isassun bayanai.

Duba wasu abubuwan

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  • Deepwater Horizon hakowa na'urar fashewa
  • Dokar muhalli
  • Amurka Coast Guard
  • Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka

Manazarta

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Hanyoyin haɗi na waje

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  1. 1.0 1.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named pwsrcac
  2. 2.0 2.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Morgan