Ciwon Kuturta wani nau'i ne na wulakanci a cikin al'umma, mummunan ji ga mai kuturta dangane da matsayinsa a cikin al'umma.[1] Ana kuma kiranta da abin kunya da ke da alaƙa da kuturta, da kuturta, da ƙin kuturta.[2] Tun a zamanin da, kuturta ta dasa al'adar tsoro da gujewa a cikin al'ummomi da yawa saboda raunin jiki da ke tattare da shi da rashin fahimtar abin da ke haifar da shi. Saboda raunin tarihi da kalmar “kuturu” ke kira, yanzu ana kiran cutar da cutar Hansen, mai suna Gerhard Armauer Hansen wanda ya gano Mycobacterium leprae, kwayar cutar da ke haifar da cutar Hansen.[3] Wadanda suka yi fama da cutar Hansen sun kwatanta tasirin rashin jin daɗi na zamantakewa da muni fiye da bayyanar jiki duk da cewa yana da sauƙi kawai kuma ana iya warkewa ta hanyar magunguna. Weis da Ramakrishna sun yi tsokaci kan wannan ra'ayi, inda suka lura cewa "tasirin ma'anar cutar na iya zama tushen wahala fiye da alamun cutar".[3][4]

Ma'anar cin mutunci

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Kalmar ‘stigma’ ta samo asali ne daga Girkawa waɗanda suka yi amfani da ita don “na nufin alamun jiki waɗanda aka tsara don fallasa wani abu da ba a saba da shi ba kuma mara kyau game da halin ɗabi’a” na mutum. Ana iya la'akari da waɗannan alamun jiki a matsayin raunukan da ke haifar da nakasar jiki a cikin fatar mutum a cikin yanayin kuturta. Masanin zamantakewar al'ummar Amurka Erving Goffman ya bayyana "lalata" a matsayin sifa da ke da matuƙar ɓata suna; mutum mai kyama shi ne wanda ba a yarda da shi ba kuma ba a ba shi girmamawa da girmamawa ga takwarorinsa ba, wanda aka hana shi daga cikakkiyar karbuwar zamantakewa. Yana da alaƙa da 1) nakasar jiki, irin su plaques na fuska, palsy na fuska, nakasar hannu ko ɗigon ƙafa; 2) lahani na halaye, kamar suna da alaƙa da shaye-shaye, shaye-shayen ƙwayoyi, ko kuturta; ko 3) launin fata, al'umma, zamantakewa, jima'i da addini waɗanda wani rukuni ke ɗauka a matsayin aji na biyu.[5][6] An gina ta da kanta bisa "tsarin tarihi, bambance-bambancen al'adu, da rashin daidaituwa na tsari," wanda ke ƙayyade ƙa'idodin zamantakewa.[7]

 
Medieval leper bell

An danganta cutar kuturta da cutar a mafi yawan tarihinta kuma ta kasance a duniya. A Yammacin Turai, ta kai kololuwarta a tsakiyar zamanai, a daidai lokacin da ake kallon cutar a matsayin “mara tsarki”. An gina gidajen “lazar” da yawa. Dole ne marasa lafiya su ɗauki ƙararrawa don nuna alamar kasancewarsu amma kuma don jawo hankalin kyautai na sadaka. Binciken da Hansen ya gano a shekara ta 1873 cewa kuturta tana da kamuwa da cuta kuma kwayoyin cuta ne ke yada su ya kara dagula cutar kuturta. An daɗe yana haɗuwa da cututtukan da ake ɗauka ta hanyar jima'i kuma a cikin karni na sha tara har ma ana tunanin matakin syphilis ne.[8] An sake sabunta kyama da cutar a tsakanin Turawa a zamanin mulkin mallaka lokacin da suka gano cewa "annobar cutar ta yadu a yankunan da ake mulkin mallaka." Ya zama yana da alaƙa da matalauta, ƙasashe masu tasowa, waɗanda Turawa suka yi imanin mazaunansu ba su da ƙasa ta mafi yawan hanyoyi. Tun daga karshen karni na ashirin, tare da kokarin hukumar lafiya ta duniya na shawo kan cutar ta hanyar rarraba magunguna kyauta, kungiyoyin kasa da kasa da dama sun dukufa wajen kawo karshen kyamar cutar kuturta. Suna aiki don ilimantar da mutane da kuma wayar da kan jama'a game da gaskiyar cutar kuturta, musamman cewa tana yaɗuwa cikin sauƙi; wasu kashi 95% na mutane ba sa kamuwa da kwayoyin cutar da ke haifar da ita.[9]

Misalan cutar kuturta

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Ƙimar da ke tattare da cutar Hansen sau da yawa tana fifita al'umma kuma tana sadaukar da haƙƙin mutum ɗaya na waɗanda ke fama. Al'ummomi da yawa a tsakiyar zamanai da ƙarni na sha tara da ashirin sun buƙaci a raba masu kuturta da sauran jama'a. A wasu ƙasashe har yanzu ana nuna kyama ga mutanen da kuturta ta shafa..[10]

A Japan, gwamnati ta bukaci a ware mutanen da ke da kuturta, rabuwar da ta kara nuna kyama ga jama'a. A zamanin da, masu fama da kuturta suna zama dabam, suna zama a kusa da haikali ko wuraren ibada, inda suke roƙon agaji daga masu wucewa. Tun daga shekara ta 1909, gwamnati ta bukaci masu fama da kuturta da su kwantar da su a asibiti a asibitin kuturta, ta yi imanin cewa hakan zai hana kamuwa da cutar. A wasu lokuta, an tilasta wa marasa lafiya zuwa asibitin kula da marasa lafiya tare da lalata musu gidaje a gaban makwabta. Iyalan su ma sun fuskanci matsalar kuturta. Wasu marasa lafiya sun yi ƙoƙarin kashe kansu. Dokar ta kasance har zuwa 1996. A Kumamoto, Japan, an yi wa majiyyaci kuturu mai suna Matsuo Fujimoto shari’a bisa zargin fashewar wani abu a shekara ta 1951 da kuma kisan kai a shekara ta 1952. A lokacin tambayoyi da gwaji, an nuna masa wariya a matsayinsa na mai kuturta. An yanke masa hukunci kuma aka kashe shi a 1962. Gwamnan lardin Kumamoto Yoshiko Shiotani ya ba da rahoto a cikin 2003 cewa wani otal ya ki amincewa da wasu tsoffin majinyata na Kikuchi Keifuen Sanatorium da ke shirin ziyarar gida na yankin. Mutane da dama sun yi zanga-zangar adawa da otal din. Lokacin da majiyyatan suka ki amincewa da uzurin otal din, an yi zanga-zangar nuna kyama ga marasa lafiya. Otal ɗin ya rushe wannan ginin a watan Yuni 2004.[11] A cikin fim ɗin wasan kwaikwayo na Jafananci Sweet Bean wanda Naomi Kawase (2015) ta jagoranci batun cutar kuturta da ke shafar halayen Tokue ya zama babban jigon labarin kuma ya kai ga taƙaitaccen bayanin wata al'umma da ta kasance ta tsofaffin marasa lafiya.

Scandinavia

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A cikin ainihin rahoton Jopling, ya ambato Hansen yana cewa "Kasar Norway ta kasance tana kula da wadanda suka kamu da kuturta cikin mutuntaka". Marasa lafiya da ke kwance a asibiti suna da damar fita da rana don siyar da aikin hannu a kasuwa, kuma an ba su izinin samun baƙi. Akwai ƴan shaida na rashin kunya. Yawancin marasa lafiya sun yi ƙaura zuwa Amurka, amma hakan ya faru ne saboda neman tsira daga talauci.

Tunanin gado ya kafu sosai, kuma sa’ad da ake tunanin gadon kuturta, an guje wa masu ciwon (da ’ya’yansu). Kamar yadda nakasa ake daukar azabar Ubangiji, to ana alakanta ta da hakan.[12] Tun daga shekara ta 2016, a wasu Jihohi, kuturta dalili ne na shari'a na ɓata haƙƙin mallaka; a kowane hali, kuturta dalilin rabuwar aure ne[16]. Dokokin wariya guda 106 suna shafar kutare har zuwa 2021.

Ana iya gano shaidar kuturta tun daga 500-300 BC. a cikin wallafe-wallafen Sinawa, lokacin da ake la'akari da azabtarwa ga ayyukan da'a.[11] Cutar kuturta ta yi yawa, kodayake ta ragu tun ƙarshen karni na ashirin. Ana fargabar lalacewar fuska da ke haifar da shi da kuma yanke gaɓoɓi. Tsawon lokacin kamuwa da cutar ya haifar da asiri tsawon ƙarni game da asalinta, abin ban tsoro, tsoro da kyama. A halin da ake ciki a kasar Sin, cutar kuturta tana da alaka da talauci sosai, kuma abin kyama ya kasance babban abin da ke hana samun magani mai inganci.

A shekara ta 1865, an kafa matsugunin kuturta na Kalaupapa a tsibirin Molokai, wani yanki mai keɓantaccen yanki mai iyaka da manyan tsaunuka ("pali") a gefe ɗaya da ruwan teku da ruwan teku da murjani a daya, ya zama kurkuku ga waɗanda aka azabtar. ta cutar Hansen a tsibirin Hawaii.[4] A shekara ta 1865 ba za a iya yin watsi da karuwar adadin masu cutar Hansen ba, an zartar da "Dokar Hana Yaɗuwar Kuturta ta al'ummar Hawaii" wanda ya aikata laifukan kuturta kuma aka yanke wa wadanda abin ya shafa hukuncin gudun hijira na dindindin.[20] Keɓewar kutare ya dogara ne akan sabon zaton kuturta cuta ce mai saurin yaɗuwa. Cutar da kuturta ta fara ne a matsayin “cutar da ba a san ta ba [ta canza] zuwa wani abu mai barazana ga al’umma da ɗabi’a”.[4] An aika waɗanda ke da shari'o'i mai tsanani zuwa Kalawao, wani yanki mai keɓe a tsibirin Moloka'i. Daga baya kuma aka samar da zama na biyu kuma mafi girma a Kalaupapa. Wannan matsugunin yana da kololuwar yawan jama'a kusan 1100 jim kadan bayan juyin juya halin karni na ashirin; Kimanin mutane 8500 ne aka kebe a nan cikin shekaru da dama har zuwa 1965. Dukansu matsugunan suna cikin gundumar Kalawao. Gabaɗayan gundumar yanzu tana cikin abin da aka sani da filin tarihi na Kalaupapa, wanda ke kiyaye manyan gine-ginen ƙauyuka da mahallin da ke da alaƙa da yankin. Ga ’yan asalin ƙasar Hawai, waɗanda suka ƙunshi yawancin masu cutar Hansen, ƙaura ya kasance mai muni. A al'adance, sun yi imanin kasancewar kansu yana da alaƙa da ƙasarsu. Mayar da su zuwa Kalaupapa kamar yadda aka yi gudun hijira daidai yake da cire su. Har ila yau rashin kunya na cutar Hansen ya haifar da rashin sabis na likita tsakanin 1865-1873 akan Kalaupapa. Babu likitoci da aka tura wurin domin suna tsoron kamuwa da cutar. Kokua, ’yan uwa, da Uba Damien ne kaɗai ke kula da waɗanda cutar Hansen ta shafa a Molokai. Kalaupapa wata sabuwar hanya ce ta magance cutar kuturta daga Turawan Yamma, wanda ya zama abin koyi na shawo kan cututtuka a duk duniya: wannan shi ne karo na farko da aka keɓe da gujewa mutanen da aka keɓe daga iyalai aka kai su wani tsibirin kurkuku mai nisa[4]. Bayan keɓe keɓe a cikin 1960, mutanen da ke zaune a Kalaupapa waɗanda suka zaɓi yin hakan na iya kasancewa har tsawon rayuwarsu. Koyaya, ƙasƙantar da ƙa'idodin likita da ƙa'idodi game da hulɗar jiki tare da mazauna Kalaupapa ya ci gaba har zuwa 1980s duk da gano magungunan sulfone [11]. Da alama 'yan Yammacin Turai ne suka kawo Myobacterium leprae tsibirin, duk da zargin da ma'aikatan shukar Sinawa ke yi. A cikin 1886, Asibitin Kuturta na Molokai ya ba da rahoton cewa ’yan mishan sun gane kuturta tun a shekara ta 1823 kafin kowace hijira ta Sinawa. Wani likita kuma ya gane irin wannan alamun a cikin 1840, wanda har yanzu kafin ma'aikatan Sinawa su zo Hawaii. Sinawa sun iya gane cutar saboda sun gani a China, amma ba su ne suka kawo ta tsibirin ba. Mai yiyuwa ne dan Yamma, tun da mutanen Hawai ba su gane cutar ba, kuma babu wani bayani kan cutar Hansen a tsakanin mutanen Hawai kafin zuwan Turawan Yamma. Bugu da ƙari, tsakanin 1866-1885, daga cikin marasa lafiya 3076, 2997 'yan asalin Hawaii ne, 57 na Turai, da 22 Sinawa.[4]

Louisiana

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A cikin 1884, majalisar dokokin Louisiana ta kafa Hukumar Kula da Kuturta ta Jiha, saboda akwai lokuta da yawa a cikin jihar. Wasu sun ce irin wannan yanayi na da nasaba da tarihin cinikin bayi daga yammacin Afirka. A cikin 1917 Majalisar Dokokin Amurka ta zartar da wani doka don ƙirƙirar kuturta ta ƙasa, wacce aka gina a Carville, Louisiana kuma Ma'aikatar Kiwon Lafiyar Jama'a ke gudanarwa, a yau da ake kira National Hansen's Disease Museum. A cikin 1941, majiyyaci Stanley Stein ya kafa wata jarida mai suna The Star, don yaƙar cutar kuturta. Masu bincike a cikin 1940s a Leprosarium na Amurka sun tabbatar da ingancin asibiti na sulfone, Promin, magani na farko da yadu don cutar. An yi amfani da shi duka don warkar da kuturta da rage barnar da ta yi. A ƙarshen karni na ashirin, masu bincike sun haɓaka maganin magunguna da yawa (MDT) don rage juriya na ƙwayoyin cuta da ke tasowa a cikin ƙwayar cuta. Leprosarium na Carville ya jagoranci sababbin hanyoyin kwantar da hankali ga majinyata na kuturta, kuma ta fara canza tunanin waɗanda ke fama da cutar. Ba a ba majinyatan kuturu damar yin aure ba sai a shekara ta 1952. Wadanda suka yi aure kafin a shigar da su a Carville ba a yarda su zauna tare da ma’aurata ba sai dai idan ma’auratan sun kasance marasa lafiya da kansu. An hana marasa lafiya barin harabar asibitin, ba a ba su izinin kada kuri'a a zabukan kasa ba, kuma duk wani mukami mai barin gado an toshe shi ta hanyar toya. Bayan an sallame su, an ba marasa lafiya takardar shedar da ta bayyana cewa su “Masu Kuturta ne na Kiwon Lafiyar Jama’a”, tare da sharhin “Ba wata barazana ga lafiyar jama’a” da aka ƙara a ƙarƙashin dalilin sallamar.[21][22]

'Yan uwan marasa lafiya da ma'aikatan kuturta

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Saboda ra'ayoyi masu alaƙa game da gado da kamuwa da cuta, yara da iyalan masu kuturta suma sun sha wahala. Bincike ya nuna cewa kusan kashi 5% na ma'auratan da ke zaune tare da masu cutar sun kamu da ita, wanda hakan ya nuna a fili cewa kuturta ba ta da saurin yaduwa.

Abubuwan da ke haifar da cutar kuturta

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Nassoshi na Littafi Mai Tsarki

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A cikin Littafin Firistoci, Littafin Firistoci 13 ya ce: “Amma idan tabo mai haske fari ne a fatar jikinsa, kuma ba a ga kamar ya fi fatar jikin ba, kuma gashin da ke kansa bai yi fari ba, firist zai yi fari. a ware wanda ya kamu da cutar har tsawon kwana bakwai”.

Rashin fahimta na jama'a

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Jama'a har yanzu suna da rashin fahimta game da kuturta, tare da dagewar imani cewa tana da saurin yaduwa. A ƙarni na ashirin da ɗaya, hukumomi irin su The Leprosy Mission sun yi yaƙi don kawo ƙarshen waɗannan munanan tunani da kuma aiki don ilimantar da mutane game da kuturta, abubuwan da ke haifar da ita, da kuma yadda ake kamuwa da ita. Suna son a gano mutanen da ke da cutar don a yi musu magani da kuma iyakance lalacewar jiki, da kuma shawo kan kamuwa da cutar. A cikin karni na ashirin da daya, ana samun ingantaccen magani na dapsone, rifampicin, da clofazimine kyauta ta hannun WHO. Duk da haka, a sassa da yawa na duniya, ƴan ƙasa har yanzu suna ganin cutar ba ta warkewa. Maganin magunguna da yawa da aka bayar kyauta ga ƙasashen da cutar ke da yawa tana samar da ingantaccen magani ga kuturta. Har ila yau, kuskuren fahimtar ya samo asali ne daga katsewar da ke tsakanin kimiyya da manufofin gwamnati. Ko da yake ƙungiyar likitocin sun amince shekaru da yawa cewa cutar Hansen ba ta da sauƙi kawai, har yanzu tana cikin jerin "cututtuka masu mahimmanci na lafiyar jama'a" don dalilai masu alaka da lafiya na rashin yarda da shi a shafin yanar gizon 'yan kasa da shige da fice na Amurka, duk da cewa HIV an cire shi a cikin 2010. Tun daga 2018, cutar Hansen har yanzu ana lissafinta a matsayin "cutar da ke da mahimmancin jama'a," sabili da haka, an tantance shi a matsayin wani ɓangare na gwajin likita na shige da fice.[25]

Leprosaria

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An gina asibitocin Lazar, kuturta, da kuma yankuna don keɓe masu cutar kuturta da alaƙa da abin kunya. Wasu daga cikin kuturta da kuma yankunan da aka mamaye suna cikin ƙasashe masu nisa ko tsibirai.

A baya, jaridu sun ba da gudummawa ga cutar kuturta, suna nuna dabi'un zamantakewa a fannoni da yawa. A cikin shirin Lou Dobb na yau da dare na ranar 7 ga Mayu, 2007, Madeleline Cosman, ƙwararriya kuma lauya - ba likita ba, ta faɗi ƙarya "an sami ƙararraki 7000 a cikin shekaru 3 da suka gabata." An yi tambaya game da shari'o'in 7000 a cikin shekaru 3 amma ya ce, "Idan muka ruwaito shi, gaskiya ne." Akasin haka, Shirin Cutar Hansen na Ƙasa ya wakilci wannan adadin a cikin shekaru 30-ba shekaru 3 ba. Ko da yake Dobbs ya amince da kuskuren a wani labari na New York Times daga baya, sakamakon bayanin karya ya ci gaba.[13] A cikin 2012, ƙungiyoyin tallafi na kuturta sun yi nasarar yin amfani da Aardman Animations don samun fage daga Pirates! A cikin wani Kasada tare da masana kimiyya, an cire shi saboda damuwa game da hoton da ya nuna. Lamarin ya hada da “jirgin kuturu”, da kuma wani kuturu wanda hannunsa ya fadi a wajen. Da yake akwai tatsuniyoyi da yawa da ke kewaye da kuturta, masu fafutuka da ke aiki don kawo ƙarshen rashin kunya sun yi imanin cewa wannan yanayin ba shi da amfani. Aardman ya yarda ya cire shi. Wasu sun yi iƙirarin cewa wasan barkwanci ba shi da lahani kuma ya kamata a riƙe shi.[14]

Yakin yaki da cutar kuturta

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Tauraruwar

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Stanley Stein, majinyaci makaho a gidan kuturta na kasa a Carville, ya fara The Star, wata mujalla mai fafutukar yaki da cutar kuturta. Mujallar ta wayar da kan jama'a game da gaskiya game da cutar Hansen. Cikakken rubutun STAR Newsletter, 1941–2001 yana kan layi.[29] Ana ci gaba da buga Tauraron sau biyu a shekara. Ana buga sabbin kwafi akan gidan yanar gizon 40 & 8 La Societe des Quarante Hommes et Huit Chevaux.[30] Har ila yau murfin baya ya ƙunshi bayanai game da cutar Hansen.[31]

Majalisar Dinkin Duniya =

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Tun daga 1995, WHO ta goyi bayan kawar da cutar Hansen ta hanyar gudanar da maganin magunguna da yawa kyauta a duk duniya da inganta ilimin cutar Hansen don kawar da kyama ga Hansen. Kodayake manufar kawar da cutar kuturta gaba daya a cikin 2020 da alama ba za ta iya yiwuwa ga "marasa lafiya ba" saboda tsawon lokacin barcin M. leprae, WHO ta koma dabarar "Tsarin karshe" da ke mai da hankali kan gano wuri da wuri don rage nakasa. Bugu da ƙari, yawancin marasa lafiya ba sa mutuwa daga kuturta amma daga wasu cututtuka da rikitarwa-ba cutar da kanta ba. Bugu da ƙari, mutane na iya rayuwa tsawon shekaru masu yawa amma har yanzu suna da kuturta ko kuma su tsira da nakasa.[32] A cikin watan Yunin 2015, kwamitin kare hakkin bil adama na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya zartas da wani kuduri kan kawar da wariya ga mutanen da kuturta ta shafa da kuma danginsu[33]. Majalisar kare hakkin dan Adam ta kada kuri'ar kafa wa'adin mai ba da rahoto na musamman kan batun a watan Yunin 2017 na tsawon shekaru uku. Daga bisani a cikin Nuwamba 2017 Alice Cruz ta Portugal an nada Alice Cruz a matsayin mai ba da rahoto na musamman na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya game da kawar da nuna bambanci ga mutanen da cutar kuturta ta shafa da danginsu.[34] A ranar 16 ga Agusta 2018, Alice Cruz ta fitar da wata sanarwa tana mai cewa, "Amfani da kuturta a matsayin ma'ana mai ma'ana ya samo asali ne daga ma'anonin stigmatizing na dogon lokaci da al'adun al'adu daban-daban, dokokin zamantakewa da tsarin shari'a suka samar, .. Yin amfani da shi a matsayin misali yana haifar da ba daidai ba ne wanda ke haifar da kyama ga jama'a, nuna wariya na yau da kullun, da kuma raunana jin daɗin 'yancin ɗan adam da yancin ɗan adam daga mutanen da abin ya shafa da iyalansu." António Costa, da ministan sufurin jiragen ruwa na Bangladesh, Shajahan Khan.

Gidajen tarihi

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Gidan kayan tarihi na Hansen na kasa (Japan) a Tokyo, Japan gidan kayan gargajiya ne na wakilci wanda ke nuna tarihin kuturta a Japan, don kawar da cutar kuturta. Yana kusa da Tama Zenshoen Sanatorium. Ƙananan gidajen tarihi suna da alaƙa da sauran wuraren sanatorium a Japan, kamar a cikin Tohoku Shinseien Sanatorium, Kuryu Rakusen-en Sanatorium, Nagashima Aiseien Sanatorium da Kikuchi Keifuen Sanatorium. Gidan Tarihi na Hansen na Ƙasa a Carville, Louisiana yana tattarawa, adanawa da fassara kayan aikin likita da al'adu na gundumar Tarihi ta Carville. Yana haɓaka fahimta, ganowa da kuma kula da cutar Hansen (kuturu) ta hanyar ƙirƙira da kula da nunin kayan tarihi, nunin tafiye-tafiye, wallafe-wallafe da gidan yanar gizo don ilmantarwa da sanar da jama'a[36].

Share L Kalmar/Kada Ka Kira Ni Kuturu

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Ofishin Jakadancin Kuturta na duniya yana ba da shawarar kawo ƙarshen amfani da kalmar "kuturu" don kwatanta mutumin da ke da kuturta. Kalmar tana da ma’ana marar kyau ga masu fama da cutar kuma, saboda yawancin nassoshi na tarihi, an daɗe ana amfani da shi don bayyana wani a matsayin “mara tsarki” a ma’anar al’ada, ko wanda bai kamata a taɓa shi ba ko kuma a haɗa shi da shi. TLM Ingila da Wales sun ƙaddamar da yaƙin neman zaɓe na "Kada Ka Kira Ni Kuturu" a cikin 2010, [37] yayin da TLM Scotland ta ƙaddamar da "Share L Word," a cikin 2012.[38]. Dukan kungiyoyin biyu sun lura cewa kalmar "kuturu" "mai wulakanci ne, kyama da kuma tsufa". Suna ba da shawarar yin amfani da kalmar "mutane / masu kuturta." Ga masu fama da jinya, “masu ciwon kuturta” su ma za a amince da su. TLM na tuntubar manema labarai akai-akai don hana amfani da kalmar “kuturu”, kuma sun yi nasarar jan kunnen BBC da ta kara da shi ga kalmomin da bai kamata a yi amfani da su ba[37].

Manazarta

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  1. Goffman, Erving (1986). Stigma: Notes on Management of Spoiled Identity. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Inc. pp. 1–3. ISBN 9780671622442.
  2. "Stigma of Leprosy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-18. Retrieved 2024-02-10.
  3. Nancy, Waxler (1981). Learning to be a leper: a case study in the social construction of illness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  4. "Weis, M. and Ramakhrishna, J. "Stigma interventions and research for international health". 2001". Archived from the original on 2013-03-18. Retrieved 2017-08-28.
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