Wikipedia

Farfadowar Harshe

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Farfado da harshe, wanda kuma ake kira farfaɗo da harshe ko juyar da canjin harshe, ƙoƙari ne na dakatarwa ko mayar da rugujewar harshe ko don rayar da wanda ya ɓace..[1][2] Wadanda abin ya shafa na iya hada da masana harshe, al'adu ko kungiyoyin al'umma, ko gwamnatoci. Wasu suna jayayya don banbance tsakanin farfaɗowar harshe (tayar da harshen da ba a taɓa samu ba tare da masu magana ba) da farfaɗowar harshe (ceto harshen “mutuwa”). An sami nasara misali guda ɗaya kawai na cikakkiyar farfaɗowar harshe, harshen Ibrananci, ƙirƙirar sabon ƙarni na masu magana da yaren ba tare da wasu masu magana da yaren asali ba a matsayin abin koyi.[3]

Harsunan da aka yi niyya don farfado da harshe sun haɗa da waɗanda amfaninsu da shahararsu ke da iyaka. Wani lokaci ma ana iya amfani da dabaru daban-daban na farfaɗo da harshe don ƙoƙarin farfaɗo da bacewar harsuna. Ko da yake manufofin farfaɗowar harshe sun bambanta sosai daga yanayi zuwa yanayi, yawanci sun haɗa da ƙoƙarin faɗaɗa yawan masu magana da amfani da harshe, ko ƙoƙarin kiyaye matakin amfani na yanzu don kare harshen daga bacewa ko mutuwar harshe.

Dalilai na farfadowa sun bambanta: suna iya haɗawa da haɗari na zahiri wanda ya shafi waɗanda harshensu ke mutuwa, haɗarin tattalin arziƙi kamar cin gajiyar albarkatun ƙasa na asali, haɗarin siyasa kamar kisan kare dangi, ko haɗarin al'adu / haɗuwa.[4]A cikin 'yan kwanakin nan [yaushe?] kadai, an kiyasta cewa fiye da harsuna 2000 sun riga sun bace. Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta kiyasta cewa fiye da rabin harsunan da ake magana a yau ba su da kasa da 10,000 kuma kashi ɗaya cikin huɗu na da ƙasa da 1,000; da kuma cewa, sai dai idan ba a yi kokarin kiyaye su ba, nan da shekaru dari masu zuwa yawancin wadannan za su shude.[5] Ana yawan ambaton waɗannan alkaluma a matsayin dalilan da suka sa farfaɗowar harshe ya zama dole don kiyaye bambance-bambancen harshe. Har ila yau, ana yawan ambaton al'adu da asali da dalilai na farfaɗo da harshe, lokacin da aka ɗauki harshe a matsayin "taska na al'adu" na musamman..[6] Al'umma sau da yawa suna kallon harshe a matsayin wani sashe na musamman na al'adun su, yana haɗa su da kakanninsu ko ƙasa, wanda ya zama wani muhimmin sashi na tarihinsu da kamannin kansu.[7]

Farfad da harshe kuma yana da alaƙa da fannin harshe na takaddun harshe. A cikin wannan fanni, masana ilimin harshe suna ƙoƙarin ƙirƙirar cikakken rikodin nahawu, ƙamus, da fasalin harshe. Wannan al'ada sau da yawa na iya haifar da ƙarin damuwa don farfado da takamaiman harshe akan nazari. Bugu da ƙari kuma, ana ɗaukar aikin rubuce-rubuce sau da yawa tare da manufar farfadowa a zuciya.[8]

Digiri na haɗarin harshe gyara sashe

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Ma'auni biyar gyara sashe

  • Ma'auni ɗaya mai yiwuwa mai maki biyar shine kamar haka:
  • Lafiya/ƙarfi: duk tsararraki suna amfani da harshe a cikin saituna iri-iri
  • Rauni / rashin lafiya: magana da tsofaffi; samari ba su cika amfani da su ba
  • Moribund/mutuwa: ƴan manyan masu magana ne kawai suka rage; yara ba sa amfani da shi azaman yare na asali
  • Matattu: Ba a ƙara magana a matsayin yare na asali
  • Bacewa: ba a magana kuma yana da kaɗan ko babu rubuce-rubuceTemplate:Dubious

Wani sikelin gyara sashe

Ana amfani da wani ma'auni don gano digiri na haɗarin harshe a cikin takarda na 2003 ("Language Vitality and Endangerment") wanda UNESCO ta ba da izini daga ƙungiyar masana harshe na duniya. Masana ilimin harshe, a tsakanin sauran manufofi da fifiko, suna ƙirƙirar ma'auni tare da digiri shida don mahimmancin harshe da haɗari. gyara sashe

.[9] Sun kuma ba da shawarar abubuwa tara ko ma'auni (shida daga cikinsu suna amfani da ma'aunin digiri shida) don "bayyana yanayin yanayin zamantakewar harshe gaba ɗaya".[9] Abubuwa tara tare da ma'auni daban-daban sune:

Watsawar harshe tsakanin tsararraki

lafiya: dukan tsararraki suna amfani da harshe

rashin lafiya: wasu yara suna amfani da yare a duk saituna, duk yara suna amfani da yare a wasu saitunan

tabbataccen haɗari: ƙananan yara suna jin harshen; galibin zuriyar iyaye da kuma manya ke magana

mai tsananin hatsari: tsofaffin al'ummomi suna magana; ba a yi amfani da tsarar iyaye da matasa ba

suna cikin haɗari: 'yan masu magana kaɗan ne suka rage kuma galibi daga manyan kakanni

bace: babu masu magana mai rai

Cikakken adadin masu magana

Adadin masu magana a cikin jimlar yawan jama'a

lafiya: kusan kashi 100% na yawan jama'a suna magana da harshen

mara lafiya: kusan kusan kashi 100% na al'ummar kasar ne ke magana da harshen

tabbataccen haɗari: yawancin jama'a suna magana da harshen

mai matukar hatsari: harshen yana magana da ƙasa da kashi 50% na yawan jama'a

mai matukar hatsari: harshen yana da ƴan magana kaɗan

bace: babu masu magana mai rai

Abubuwan da ke faruwa a cikin yankunan harshe na yanzu

amfani na duniya (aminci): magana a duk yankuna; ga dukkan ayyuka

daidaitattun harsuna da yawa (mara lafiya): harsuna da yawa (2+) ana magana da su a yawancin wuraren zamantakewa; don yawancin ayyuka

yankuna masu raguwa (tabbas masu haɗari): galibi ana magana a cikin yanki na gida kuma yana cikin gasa tare da babban yare; don ayyuka da yawa

yankuna masu iyaka ko na yau da kullun (masu haɗari): ana magana a cikin iyakokin zamantakewa; don ayyuka da yawa

yankuna masu iyaka (masu haɗari): ana magana a cikin ƙayyadaddun yankuna; don ƙananan ayyuka

bacewa: babu yanki; babu ayyuka

Martani ga sababbin yankuna da kafofin watsa labarai

mai ƙarfi (lafiya): magana a cikin duk sabbin yankuna

robust/active (mara lafiya): ana magana a yawancin sabbin yankuna

mai karɓa (masu haɗari): ana magana a cikin sabbin yankuna da yawa

jimrewa (masu haɗari): magana a wasu sabbin yankuna

kadan (masu haɗari): ana magana a cikin ƙananan sabbin yankuna

mara aiki (bacewa): magana a cikin sabon yanki

Kayayyaki don ilimin harshe da karatu

mai lafiya: kafaffen rubutun rubutu da dama ga kayan ilimi

rashin lafiya: samun damar yin amfani da kayan ilimi; yara masu tasowa karatu; ba a yi amfani da shi ta hanyar gudanarwa ba

tabbataccen haɗari: samun damar samun kayan ilimi ya wanzu a makaranta; karatu a cikin harshe ba a inganta

mai matukar hatsari: akwai kayan karatu amma babu su a cikin manhajar karatu

Yana cikin haɗari: an san rubutun rubutun kuma akwai wasu rubuce-rubucen

bacewa: ba a san rubutun rubutun ba

  1. Halaye da manufofin harshe na gwamnati da na hukuma (ciki har da matsayi na hukuma da amfani) daidaitaccen goyan bayan (lafiya): duk harsuna ana kiyaye su daidai tallafi daban-daban (mara lafiya): da farko an kiyaye shi don yankuna masu zaman kansu m assimilation (tabbas a cikin haɗari): babu ƙayyadaddun manufofin kariya; amfani da harshe ya ragu a yankin jama'a aiki mai ƙarfi (mai haɗari): gwamnati ta hana yin amfani da harshe; babu kariyar gwamnati na harshe a kowane yanki tilastawa (masu haɗari): harshe ba a gane ko kariya ba; gwamnati ta gane wani yare na hukuma haramun (bacewa): an hana amfani da harshe Halayen membobin al'umma game da yarensu amintacce: harshe yana mutunta, kimarsa, da kuma ciyar da al'umma gaba ɗaya mara lafiya: yawancin al'umma suna tallafawa kula da harshe tabbataccen haɗari: yawancin al'umma suna tallafawa kula da harshe; sauran ba ruwansu da ko goyan bayan asarar harshe mai matukar hatsari: wasu al'umma suna tallafawa kula da harshe; sauran ba ruwansu da ko goyan bayan asarar harshe mai matukar hatsari: ƴan al'umma ne kawai ke tallafawa kula da harshe; sauran ba ruwansu da ko goyan bayan asarar harshe bacewa: cikakken rashin jin daɗin kula da harshe; fi son rinjayen harshe Adadi da ingancin takardun. superlative (lafiya): faffadan sauti, bidiyo, kafofin watsa labarai, da rubuce-rubucen harshe mai kyau (mara lafiya): audio, bidiyo, kafofin watsa labarai, da rubutattun takardu duk sun wanzu; kadan daga cikin kowanne gaskiya (tabbas masu haɗari): akwai wasu takaddun sauti da bidiyo; isassun takardun da aka rubuta ɓarna (masu haɗari): ƙayyadaddun takaddun sauti da na bidiyo suna wanzu a ƙananan inganci; ƙananan takardun da aka rubuta wanda bai isa ba (masu haɗari): kaɗan ne kawai na rubuce-rubucen da ke wanzu mara izini (bacewa): babu takaddun da ke wanzu

Ka'idar gyara sashe

Ɗaya daga cikin mahimman matakan farko na farfaɗowar harshe/murmurewa ya haɗa da tabbatar da matakin da wani harshe ya "rabe". Wannan yana taimaka wa ɓangarorin da abin ya shafa su sami hanya mafi kyau don taimakawa ko farfado da harshen.[10]

Matakan juyar da canjin harshe gyara sashe

Akwai ra'ayoyi ko samfuri daban-daban da yawa waɗanda ke ƙoƙarin tsara tsari don farfado da harshe. Ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan shine mashahurin masanin harshe Joshua Fishman. Misalin Fishman don farfado da yarukan barazana (ko barci), ko don sanya su dorewa,[11][12]ya ƙunshi tsari mai matakai takwas. Yakamata a maida hankali kan matakan farko na gyare-gyare har sai an daidaita su kafin a ci gaba da zuwa matakai na gaba. Matakan guda takwas su ne:

Samun harshen ta manya, waɗanda a zahiri suna aiki a matsayin masu koyon harshe (an ba da shawarar inda mafi yawan sauran masu magana da harshen tsofaffi ne kuma ba su da alaƙa da sauran masu magana da harshen).

Ƙirƙirar haɗin gwiwar jama'a na masu magana (ko masu amfani) na harshe (a wannan matakin yawanci ya fi dacewa a mai da hankali musamman ga yaren magana maimakon rubutaccen harshe).

A cikin yankunan da akwai adadin mutanen da suka saba amfani da harshen, ƙarfafa yin amfani da harshe na yau da kullum a tsakanin mutane na kowane nau'i na shekaru da kuma cikin iyalai da kuma karfafa amfani da shi ta yau da kullum ta hanyar kafa cibiyoyin unguwanni na gida wanda ake ƙarfafa harshen. kariya kuma (a cikin wasu mahallin aƙalla) ana amfani da shi na musamman.

A cikin wuraren da aka sami ƙwarewar magana a cikin harshe a kowane rukuni na zamani, ƙarfafa ilimin harshe a cikin harshe, amma ta hanyar da ba ta dogara da taimako daga (ko yardar) tsarin ilimi na jiha ba.

Inda jihar ta ba da izini, kuma inda lambobi suka ba da izini, ƙarfafa yin amfani da harshe a cikin ilimin jiha.

Inda aka cimma matakan da ke sama kuma aka ƙarfafa su, ƙarfafa yin amfani da harshe a wurin aiki.

Inda aka cimma matakan da ke sama kuma aka ƙarfafa su, ƙarfafa yin amfani da harshe a ayyukan ƙananan hukumomi da kafofin watsa labarai.

Inda aka cimma matakan da suka gabata da kuma karfafa su, karfafa yin amfani da harshe a manyan makarantu, gwamnati, da dai sauransu.

Wannan tsari na farfaɗo da harshe an yi niyya ne don jagorantar ƙoƙarin zuwa inda ya fi tasiri da kuma guje wa ɓarnatar da kuzari ƙoƙarin cimma matakan farfadowa na baya lokacin da ba a cimma matakan farko ba. Alal misali, yana iya zama almubazzaranci a yi kamfen don yin amfani da harshe a talabijin ko kuma a hidimar gwamnati idan da wuya wasu iyalai da suke da halin yin amfani da harshen.

Bugu da ƙari, Tasaku Tsunoda ya bayyana kewayon dabaru daban-daban ko hanyoyin da masu magana za su iya amfani da su don ƙoƙarin farfado da harshe, gami da dabarun farfado da bacewar harsuna da kuma kula da masu rauni. Dabarun da ya lissafo sau da yawa suna iyakance ga ƙarfin halin yanzu na harshe.

Ya yi iƙirarin cewa ba za a iya amfani da hanyar nutsewa ba don farfado da yare ko ɓarna. Sabanin haka, ana iya amfani da hanyar koyan koyo na watsa ɗaya-ɗayan kan ƙwarewar harshe tare da harsunan da ba su da ƙarfi. Wasu hanyoyi da yawa na farfadowa, gami da waɗanda suka dogara da fasaha kamar rikodin rikodi ko kafofin watsa labarai, ana iya amfani da su don harsuna a kowane yanayi mai yiwuwa..[13]

Tasirin hanyar ya dogara ne da yuwuwar harshe.[13]
Method Degree of endangerment
Weakening Moribund Dead/extinct
Immersion effective ineffective ineffective
Neighborhood effective ineffective ineffective
Bilingual effective ineffective ineffective
Master-apprentice effective effective ineffective
Total physical response effective effective ineffective
Telephone effective effective ineffective
Radio effective effective effective
Multimedia effective effective effective
Two-way effective effective effective
Formulaic effective effective effective
Artificial pidgin effective effective effective
Place name effective effective effective
Reclamation effective effective effective
Adoption effective effective effective

Abubuwan da ke cikin nasarar farfado da harshe gyara sashe

David Crystal,a cikin littafinsa Mutuwar Harshe, ya ba da shawarar cewa farfaɗowar harshe zai fi yin nasara idan masu magana da shi

ƙara darajar harshen a cikin al'umma masu rinjaye;

ƙara musu dukiya da kuɗin shiga;

kara karfin halascinsu a idon al'umma masu rinjaye;

suna da karfi a cikin tsarin ilimi;

iya rubuta harshe;

iya amfani da fasahar lantarki.[14]

A cikin littafinta, Harsunan Ƙarfafawa: Gabatarwa, Sarah Thomason ta lura da nasarar ƙoƙarin farfaɗo don Ibrananci na zamani da kuma nasarar da aka samu na farfado da Maori a New Zealand (duba Misalai na Musamman a ƙasa). Wani sanannen abu da waɗannan misalan biyu suka raba shi ne cewa yaran an reno su ne a cikin yanayi mai zurfi.[15]Game da Ibrananci, yana kan al'ummomin gama gari na farko da ake kira kibbutzim.[16] Don yaren Maori A New Zealand, an yi hakan ta hanyar gidan yare.[17]

Farfadowar ilimin harshe gyara sashe

Ghil'ad Zuckermann yana ba da shawarar "Revival Linguistics" a matsayin sabon horo na harshe da tsari.

Kalmar Zuckermann ta 'Revival Linguistics' an ƙirƙira ta ne akan 'Contact Linguistics'. Revival linguistics inter alia yana bincika ƙuntatawa na duniya da hanyoyin da ke tattare da sake fasalin harshe, sabuntawa da farfaɗowa. Yana zana ra'ayoyi masu kamanceceniya daga ƙoƙari na farfaɗo zuwa wani, don haka yana aiki azaman gadar ilimin zamani tsakanin jawabai iri ɗaya a cikin yunƙurin gida daban-daban na farfaɗo da harsunan barci a duk faɗin duniya.

Zuckermann's term 'Revival Linguistics' is modelled upon 'Contact Linguistics'. Revival linguistics inter alia explores the universal constraints and mechanisms involved in language reclamation, renewal and revitalization. It draws perspicacious comparative insights from one revival attempt to another, thus acting as an epistemological bridge between parallel discourses in various local attempts to revive sleeping tongues all over the globe.[18]

A cewar Zuckermann, "Lissafi na Tarurrukan Harsuna sun haɗu da nazarin kimiyya na samun harshen asali da kuma koyan harshen waje. Bayan haka, sake fasalin harshe shine mafi girman yanayin koyon harshe na biyu. Revival linguistics ya dace da kafaffen fannin ilimin harsuna, wanda ke rubuta harsunan da ke cikin haɗari a baya. barci suke yi."[19]

Zuckermann ya ba da shawarar cewa "fasahar ilimin harshe yana canza fagen ilimin harshe na tarihi ta hanyar, alal misali, raunana tsarin bishiyar iyali, wanda ke nuna cewa harshe yana da iyaye ɗaya kawai.t."[19]

Akwai sabani a fagen farfado da harshe dangane da matakin da ya kamata farkawa ta mayar da hankali kan kiyaye harshen gargajiya, da ba da damar sauƙaƙawa ko kuma yaɗa rance daga mafi yawan harshe.

Yin sulhu

Zuckermann ya yarda da kasancewar "bangarori na gida da wawanci"[19]amma yana nuna hakan

"Akwai matsalolin harshe da suka dace da duk ƙoƙarin farfaɗo da su. Ƙaddamar da su zai taimaka wa masu farfaɗo da shugabannin al'ummomi na farko don yin aiki yadda ya kamata. Alal misali, yana da sauƙi don tayar da ƙamus da kalmomi na ainihi fiye da sauti da tsarin kalmomi. Revivalists ya kamata su kasance masu gaskiya kuma su kasance masu gaskiya kuma su kasance masu gaskiya. yi watsi da raɗaɗin raɗaɗi, maganganu marasa amfani kamar su "Ba mu sahihanci ko a kashe mu."[19]

Nancy Dorian ya yi nuni da cewa halaye masu ra'ayin mazan jiya game da kalmomin lamuni da sauye-sauye na nahawu sukan kawo cikas ga yunƙurin farfado da harsunan da ke cikin hatsari (kamar yadda yake a cikin Tiwi a Ostiraliya), kuma rarrabuwa na iya kasancewa tsakanin masu farfaɗo da ilimi, masu sha'awar tarihi, da sauran masu magana da ke sha'awar ingantaccen salon magana na cikin gida (kamar yadda yake a cikin Tiwi a Ostiraliya). wani lokaci ya faru tare da Irish). Wasu sun yi iƙirarin cewa sasantawa na tsari na iya, a haƙiƙa, haɓaka tsammanin rayuwa, kamar yadda wataƙila ya kasance a cikin Ingilishi a lokacin post-Norman..[20]

Dan gargajiya gyara sashe

Wasu masana ilimin harshe sun yi jayayya cewa lokacin da farfaɗowar harshe ya ɗauki aro daga yawancin harshe, sakamakon shine sabon harshe, watakila creole ko p. gyara sashe

idgin.[21] Misali, samuwar “Neo-Hawaiian” a matsayin wani yare dabam da na “Hawayen Gargajiya” an ba da shawarar, saboda tsananin tasirin Ingilishi a kowane fanni na harshen Hawai da aka farfado.[22] An kuma ba da shawarar wannan don Irish, tare da rarrabuwa tsakanin "Urban Irish" (masu magana da yare na biyu) da Irish na gargajiya (kamar yadda ake magana a matsayin yaren farko a yankunan Gaeltacht). Ó Béarra ya ce: "[don] bi ƙa'idodin ƙa'idodin Ingilishi, [zai kasance] samar da abin da bai wuce Ingilishi ba a cikin ja na Irish.."[23] Dangane da yaren Manx da aka fi sani da shi a lokacin, masanin T. F. O'Rahilly ya ce, “Lokacin da harshe ya ba da kansa ga salon magana na waje, kuma idan dukan masu magana da shi suka zama harsuna biyu, hukuncin kisa ne."[24]Neil McRae ya bayyana cewa amfani da Gaelic na Scotland yana ƙara zama alama, kuma kalmar Gaelic na asali ana ɓacewa don goyon bayan kalmomin wucin gadi da masu magana da harshe na biyu suka ƙirƙira.[25]

Misali gyara sashe

Jimillar farfaɗo da mataccen harshe (a ma'anar rashin masu magana) don zama hanyar sadarwar jama'a masu dogaro da kai na miliyoyin masu magana da harshen farko sau ɗaya kawai, a cikin yanayin Ibrananci, wanda ya haifar da Zamani. Ibrananci- yanzu harshen ƙasar Isra'ila. A wannan yanayin, akwai wani tsari na musamman na tarihin tarihi da al'adu wanda ya sauƙaƙe farfadowa. (Dubi Revival of the Hebrew language.) Ibrananci, wanda ya kasance yaren liturgical, an sake kafa shi a matsayin hanyar sadarwa ta yau da kullun ta Yahudawa masu ƙaura zuwa ƙasar Isra'ila da yankunan Falasɗinawa, tun daga ƙarni na sha tara. Shi ne mafi shahara da nasara misali a duniya na farfado da harshe.

A cikin ci gaban da ke da alaƙa, harsunan adabi ba tare da masu magana da yaren asali ba sun ji daɗin girma da kuma amfani mai amfani kamar yare, galibi suna ƙirga miliyoyin masu iya magana a lokaci guda. A yawancin irin waɗannan lokuta, raguwar amfani da harshe na adabi, wani lokaci mai girma, ya kasance tare da sabuntawa mai ƙarfi. Wannan ya faru, alal misali, a cikin farfaɗowar Latin na gargajiya a cikin Renaissance, da farfaɗowar Sanskrit a farkon ƙarni AD. Wani abu mai kamanceceniya a yankunan masu jin Larabci na zamani shine faɗaɗa amfani da harshen adabi (Modern Standard Larabci, wani nau'i na Larabci na gargajiya na ƙarni na 6 AD). Ana koyar da wannan ga duk masu magana da ilimi kuma ana amfani da su a watsa shirye-shiryen rediyo, tattaunawa na yau da kullun, da sauransu.

Bugu da kari, wasu lokutan harsunan adabi sun tashi zuwa matakin zama harsunan farko na al’ummomin harsuna masu yawan gaske. Misali shi ne daidaitaccen harshen Italiyanci, wanda ya samo asali a matsayin harshen adabi bisa harshen Florence na ƙarni na 13, musamman kamar yadda manyan marubutan Florentine kamar Dante, Petrarch da Boccaccio ke amfani da su. Wannan harshe ya wanzu shekaru aru-aru da yawa a matsayin abin hawa na adabi, ba tare da masu magana ba; ko da a ƙarshen 1861, a jajibirin haɗin kan Italiya, harshen ya ƙidaya kusan masu magana da 500,000 (da yawa waɗanda ba 'yan ƙasa ba), daga cikin jimlar yawan c. 22,000,000. Nasarar harshen da ta biyo baya ta kasance ta hanyar ci gaba a hankali, inda aka koya wa masu magana da kowane ɗayan yarukan Italiyanci daidaitaccen harshen Italiyanci a matsayin harshe na biyu kuma daga baya an ba da shi ga 'ya'yansu, waɗanda suka koyi shi a matsayin harshen farko. [Ana bukatan hujja] Tabbas wannan ya zo ne ta hanyar amfani da harsunan Italiyanci na gida, waɗanda yawancinsu yanzu suna cikin haɗari. Babban Jamusanci, daidaitaccen Czech, Mutanen Espanya na Castilian da sauran harsuna sun sami nasara a cikin irin wannan yanayi.

Afrika gyara sashe

Harshen 'yan Koftik ya fara raguwa lokacin da Larabci ya zama babban yare a Masar. Paparoma Shenouda III ya kafa Cibiyar Harshen Koftik a cikin Disamba 1976 a cikin Coptic Orthodox Cathedral na Saint Mark a Alkahira don manufar farfado da harshen 'yan Koftik..[26][27]

Amurka gyara sashe

Arewacin Amurka gyara sashe

A cikin 'yan shekarun nan, ɗimbin ƙabilun ƴan asalin Amirka suna ƙoƙarin farfado da harsunansu. Misali, akwai manhajoji (ciki har da jimloli, jerin kalmomi da ƙamus) a cikin yarukan Ƙasa da yawa da suka haɗa da Cree, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Lakota, Ojibwe, Oneida, Massachusett, Navajo, Halq'emeylem, Gwych'in, da Lushootseed.

Wampanoag, yaren da mutane masu suna iri ɗaya ke magana a Massachusetts, an gudanar da aikin farfaɗo da harshe karkashin jagorancin Jessie Little Doe Baird, ƙwararren masanin harshe. Membobin ƙabilar suna amfani da faffadan rubutattun bayanan da ke akwai a cikin yarensu, gami da fassarar Littafi Mai Tsarki da takaddun doka, don koyo da koyar da Wampanoag. Aikin ya ga yara suna magana da yaren sosai a karon farko cikin sama da shekaru 100. Bugu da kari, a halin yanzu ana kokarin farfado da yaren Chochenyo na California, wanda ya shude.

Ƙungiyoyin Ƙungiyoyin Ƙungiyoyin Ƙungiyoyin Grand Ronde da sauransu suna yin ƙoƙari don ganin Chinook Jargon, wanda aka fi sani da Chinuk Wawa, a raye. Wannan ƙungiyar waƙoƙi da labaran da aka tattara daga Victoria Howard kuma Melville Jacobs ne suka buga ta.

Dandalin bude tushen FirstVoices yana karbar bakuncin gidajen yanar gizo da al'umma ke gudanarwa don ayyukan farfado da harshe guda 85, wanda ya kunshi nau'ikan harsuna 33 na asali a cikin British Columbia da kuma fiye da harsunan dozin daga "wani wuri a Kanada da na duniya", tare da ƙamus 17 .[28]

Tlingit gyara sashe

Hakazalika da sauran harsunan asali, Tlingit na cikin haɗari sosai. Kasa da dattawa 100 masu basira sun wanzu har zuwa 2017. Daga 2013 zuwa 2014, mai fafutukar harshe, marubuci, kuma malami, Sʔímlaʔxw Michele K. Johnson daga Syilx Nation, yayi ƙoƙari ya koyar da ɗalibai biyu masu bege na Tlingit a cikin Yukon. Hanyoyinta sun haɗa da ƙirƙirar littattafan karatu, tsarin koyarwa na nutsewa a jere, da tantancewar fim. Manufar ita ce a taimaka wajen ƙirƙirar manyan masu magana waɗanda suka kai shekarun haihuwa, don su ma su fara koyar da yaren. A cikin 2020, X̱ʼunei Lance Twitchell ya jagoranci aji na kan layi na Tlingit tare da Kwalejin Outer Coast. Dalibai da dama ne suka halarci. Shi abokin farfesa ne na Harsunan Asalin Alaska a Makarantar Arts da Kimiyya a Jami'ar Alaska Kudu maso Gabas wanda ke ba da ƙarami a cikin yaren Tlingit da kuma mai da hankali kan Harsunan 'Yan Asalin Alaska da Nazari a cikin digiri na farko a Arts Liberal Arts..[29]

Kudacin Amurka gyara sashe

KichwaYaren Quechua iri-iri ne da ake magana da shi a Ecuador kuma yana ɗaya daga cikin yarukan ƴan asalin da ake magana da su a Kudancin Amirka. Duk da wannan gaskiyar, Kichwa harshe ne na barazana, musamman saboda yaɗuwar Mutanen Espanya a Kudancin Amirka. Ɗaya daga cikin al'ummomin masu magana da Kichwa na asali, Lagunas, ɗaya ne daga cikin al'ummomin ƴan asali na farko da suka canza zuwa harshen Sipaniya. A cewar King, hakan ya faru ne saboda karuwar ciniki da kasuwanci tare da babban garin da ke magana da Mutanen Espanya. Mutanen Lagunas sun yi iƙirarin cewa ba don dalilai na haɗa al'adu ba ne, saboda suna daraja asalin al'adun su sosai. Duk da haka, da zarar an yi wannan hulɗar, harshe na mutanen Lagunas ya canza zuwa tsararraki, zuwa Kichwa da harshen Mutanen Espanya kuma yanzu shine ainihin harshen Mutanen Espanya. Hankalin mutanen Lagunas yana gabatar da dichotomy tare da amfani da harshe, saboda yawancin membobin Lagunas suna magana da Mutanen Espanya na musamman kuma kawai sun san 'yan kalmomi a cikin Kichwa.

Abubuwan da ake fatan sake farfado da harshen Kichwa ba su da alfanu, saboda iyaye sun dogara da karatun makaranta don wannan dalili, wanda bai kusan yin tasiri kamar ci gaba da bayyana harshe a cikin gida ba. Makaranta a cikin unguwar Lagunas, ko da yake ana mai da hankali sosai kan koyar da Kichwa, ya ƙunshi galibin mu'amala, karatu, da rubutu cikin Kichwa. Baya ga ƙoƙarce-ƙoƙarce daga tushe, ƙungiyoyin farfaɗo da harshe na ƙasa, kamar CONAIE, suna mai da hankali kan yaran ƴan asalin da ba sa jin Mutanen Espanya, waɗanda ke wakiltar ƴan tsiraru masu yawa a ƙasar. Wani yunƙuri na ƙasa, Shirin Ilimin Al'adu tsakanin Bilingual (PEBI), bai yi tasiri ba wajen farfado da harshe saboda ana ba da koyarwa cikin Kichwa kuma ana koyar da Mutanen Espanya a matsayin yare na biyu ga yara waɗanda kusan masu yaren Sipaniya guda ɗaya ne. Ko da yake wasu fasahohin suna ganin ba su da tasiri, Kendall A. King yana ba da shawarwari da yawa:

Bayyanawa da samun harshen tun yana ƙuruciya.

Matsakaicin dabarun nutsewa.

Ƙoƙari da yawa da yawa don isa ga manya.

Sassauci da daidaitawa a cikin tsarawa da aiwatarwa

Kai tsaye magana iri-iri na harshe.

Masu tsarawa suna jaddada cewa farfado da harshe tsari ne mai tsawo

Haɗa mutane da yawa gwargwadon yiwuwa

Iyaye suna amfani da yaren tare da 'ya'yansu

Masu tsarawa da masu ba da shawara suna fuskantar matsalar daga kowane bangare.

Shawarwari na musamman sun haɗa da ba da kyakkyawar fahimta game da harshe a makarantu, mai da hankali kan ƙoƙarin tushe a makaranta da gida, da kula da kulawar ƙasa da yanki.[30]

Asia gyara sashe

Hebrew gyara sashe

Samfura:Ƙari Farfaɗo da harshen Ibrananci shine kawai misali mai nasara na sake farfado da yaren da ya mutu. Harshen Ibrananci ya tsira har zuwa lokacin tsakiyar zamanai a matsayin harshen liturgy na Yahudawa da adabin rabbi. Tare da hawan sahyoniyanci a karni na 19, an sake farfado da ita a matsayin harshe da ake magana da kuma adabi, da farko ya zama yare da ake magana da shi a tsakanin Yahudawan farko da suka yi hijira zuwa Falasdinu na Ottoman kuma sun sami matsayi na hukuma a cikin kundin tsarin mulkin 1922 na Dokar Burtaniya ga Falasdinu da daga baya na kasar Isra'ila.

Sanskrit

Samfura:Ƙari an yi yunƙurin sake farfado da Sanskrit a Indiya. Koyaya, duk da waɗannan yunƙurin, babu masu magana da yaren farko na Sanskrit a Indiya. A cikin kowace ƙidayar ƙidayar shekara ta Indiya kwanan nan, 'yan ƙasa dubu da yawa sun ba da rahoton Sanskrit ya zama yarensu na asali. Duk da haka, ana tunanin waɗannan rahotannin suna nuna alamar fata don daidaitawa da martabar harshen, maimakon kasancewa da gaske na nuni da kasancewar dubban masu magana da L1 Sanskrit a Indiya. Haka kuma an sami karuwar abubuwan da ake kira "kauyukan Sanskrit", amma masana sun nuna shakku kan yadda ake magana da harshen Sanskrit da gaske a irin wadannan kauyuka.

Soyot

Template:Main Yaren Soyot na Soyot masu ƙima a Buryatia, Rasha, ɗaya daga cikin yaren Turkawa na Siberiya, an sake gina shi kuma an buga ƙamus na Soyot-Buryat-Russian a 2002. Harshen a halin yanzu ana koyar da shi a wasu makarantun firamare.

Aynu

Template:Main Harshen Ainu na ƴan asalin Ainu na arewacin Japan a halin yanzu yana ci gaba da tabarbarewa, amma ana ci gaba da ƙoƙarin farfado da shi. Wani bincike na 2006 na Hokkaido Ainu ya nuna cewa kashi 4.6 cikin 100 na Ainu da aka bincika sun sami damar yin magana a ciki ko "magana kaɗan" Ainu. A shekara ta 2001, ba a koyar da Ainu a kowace makarantun firamare ko sakandare a Japan, amma an ba da shi a cibiyoyin harshe da yawa da jami'o'i a Hokkaido, da kuma Jami'ar Chiba ta Tokyo.

Manchu

Samfura:Main A kasar Sin, yaren Manchu yana daya daga cikin yarukan da ke cikin hadari, inda masu magana a kananan yankuna uku na Manchuria suka rage. Wasu masu kishin kasa suna kokarin farfado da harshen kakanninsu ta hanyar amfani da kamus da litattafai da ake da su, har ma da ziyartar gundumar Qapqal Xibe mai cin gashin kanta da ke jihar Xinjiang, inda har yanzu ake amfani da yaren Xibe na asali.

Armenian

Samfura: Babban

Yaren Armeniya, musamman na Yaren Armeniya ta Yamma, UNESCO ta ayyana shi a matsayin yaren da ke cikin haɗari yayin da yawancin masu magana da yaren ke zama a cikin al'ummomin da ke nesa da ƙasarsu ta Anatoliya. Duk da haka, an yi ƙoƙari daban-daban don farfado da harshen, musamman a cikin al'ummar Los Angeles inda mafi yawan Armeniyawa na Yamma ke shugabanta.

A cikin kundin karatunta, Shushan Karapetian ta yi bayani mai tsawo game da raguwar harshen Armeniya a Amurka, da sabbin hanyoyin kiyayewa da farfado da Armeniya ta Yamma, kamar kafa kwamitin Saroyan ko Kwamitin Kula da Harshen Armeniya, wanda aka kaddamar a shekara ta 2013. Ana iya ganin ƙoƙarin farfado da harshe a cikin Jami'ar California a Irvine.[31]

Other Asian gyara sashe

yunƙurin farfado da Kodrah Kristang a Singapore na neman farfaɗo da ƙazamin Kiristang da ke cikin haɗari.

A Tailandia, akwai aikin farfado da harshen Chong, wanda Suwilai Premsrirat ke jagoranta.[32]

Europe gyara sashe

A Turai, a cikin karni na 19 da farkon 20th, amfani da harsunan gida da na koyo ya ragu yayin da gwamnatocin tsakiya na jihohi daban-daban suka sanya harshensu na yare a matsayin ma'auni a duk lokacin ilimi da kuma amfani da hukuma (haka ya kasance a Birtaniya). Faransa, Spain, Italiya da Girka, kuma har zuwa wani lokaci, a Jamus da Austria-Hungary). [Ana bukatan hujja]

A cikin ƴan shekarun da suka gabata, kishin ƙasa na gida da ƙungiyoyin kare haƙƙin ɗan adam sun samar da ma'auni na manufofin al'adu da yawa a cikin ƙasashen Turai; An bayyana kakkausar suka kan ayyukan da aka yi a baya na murkushe harsunan yanki ta hanyar amfani da kalmomin kamar "harshe".

Irish gyara sashe

Template:Main Ɗaya daga cikin sanannun ƙoƙarin Turai na farfado da harshe ya shafi harshen Irish. Yayin da Ingilishi ya mamaye yawancin Ireland, Irish, yaren Celtic, har yanzu ana magana da shi a wasu yankuna da ake kira Gaeltachtaí, amma akwai raguwa sosai. Kalubalen da harshen ya fuskanta a cikin ƴan ƙarnuka da suka gabata sun haɗa da keɓancewa daga muhimman wurare, wulaƙanta zamantakewa, mutuwa ko ƙaura na yawancin masu magana da Irish a lokacin yunwar Irish na 1840s, da ci gaba da ƙaura tun daga. An yi ƙoƙari don farfado da Irish, duk da haka, daga tsakiyar 1800s, kuma an danganta su da sha'awar 'yancin siyasar Irish. Farfaɗowar harshen Irish na zamani ya haɗa da koyar da Irish a matsayin yaren dole a manyan makarantun Ingilishi. Amma rashin koyar da shi ta hanya mai inganci da jan hankali yana nufin (kamar yadda masanin ilimin harshe Andrew Carnie ya lura) cewa ɗalibai ba sa samun ƙwarewar da ake buƙata don dorewar harshen, kuma hakan yana haifar da gundura da bacin rai. Carnie kuma ta lura da rashin kafofin watsa labarai a cikin Irish (2006),[33]duk da ba haka lamarin yake ba.

Rushewar Gaeltachtaí da gazawar farfaɗowar da gwamnati ta jagoranta an fuskanci matsalar farfaɗowar birane. Wannan ya dogara ne akan tsarin makaranta mai zaman kansa, wanda aka fi sani da Gaelskoileanna. Waɗannan makarantu suna koyarwa gaba ɗaya ta hanyar Irish kuma adadinsu yana ƙaruwa, tare da irin waɗannan makarantu sama da talatin a Dublin kaɗai. Su ne muhimmin kashi a cikin ƙirƙirar hanyar sadarwa na masu magana da Irish na birni (wanda aka sani da Gaeilgeoirí), waɗanda suka kasance matasa, masu ilimi da matsakaici. Yanzu yana yiwuwa wannan rukunin ya sami taro mai mahimmanci, gaskiyar da ke nunawa a fadada kafofin watsa labaru na Irish. Talabijin na harshen Irish ya sami nasara ta musamman. An yi iƙirarin cewa sun fi samun ilimi fiye da masu magana da Ingilishi guda ɗaya kuma suna jin daɗin matsayi na zamantakewa.[34] They yana wakiltar canjin Irish zuwa duniyar birni ta zamani, tare da haɓakar martaba.

Scottish Gaelic

Har ila yau, akwai yunƙurin sake farfado da harshe mai alaƙa na Scottish Gaelic, wanda aka danne bayan samuwar Ƙasar Ingila, kuma ya shiga ƙara raguwa saboda izinin Highland. A halin yanzu, Gaelic ana magana ne kawai a cikin Tsibirin Yamma da wasu ƙananan yankuna na tsaunuka da tsibirai. Ragewar masu magana da Gaelic masu iya magana ya ragu; duk da haka, cibiyar yawan jama'a ta koma masu magana da L2 a cikin birane, musamman Glasgow.[35][36]

Manx gyara sashe

Template:Main Wani yaren Celtic, Manx, ya rasa mai magana na ƙarshe a cikin 1974 kuma UNESCO ta ayyana bacewa a 2009, amma bai taɓa faɗuwa daga amfani da shi ba. Harshen yanzu ana koyar da shi a makarantun firamare da sakandare, gami da matsayin hanyar koyarwa a Bunscoill Ghaelgagh, ana amfani da shi a wasu al'amuran jama'a kuma kusan mutane 1800 suna magana a matsayin yare na biyu. Ƙoƙarin farfadowa sun haɗa da nunin rediyo a cikin Manx Gaelic da kafofin watsa labarun da albarkatun kan layi. Gwamnatin Manx ta kuma shiga cikin ƙoƙarin ta hanyar ƙirƙirar ƙungiyoyi irin su Manx Heritage Foundation (Culture Vannin) da matsayi na Jami'in Harshe na Manx. Gwamnati ta fitar da Dabarun Harshen Manx na 2017-2021.[37]

Cornish gyara sashe

An yi yunƙuri da dama don farfado da harshen Masarauta, na sirri da wasu a ƙarƙashin haɗin gwiwar Harshen Masara. Wasu ayyukan sun haɗa da fassarar nassosin Kirista, ƙungiyar bariki,[38] da kuma haɓaka adabin Masarawa a cikin Masarautar zamani, gami da litattafai da wakoki.

Breton gyara sashe

Template:Main

Caló gyara sashe

Romani da ya isa yankin Iberian ya haɓaka yaren Romani na Iberian. Yayin da lokaci ya wuce, Romani ya daina zama cikakken harshe kuma ya zama Caló, wanda ba zai iya haɗa nahawu na Romance na Iberian da ƙamus na Romani ba. Tare da zama da koyarwar wajibi a cikin yarukan hukuma, Calo ana amfani da ƙasa da ƙasa. Kamar yadda Iberian Romani daidai yake bacewa kuma kamar yadda Caló ke cikin haɗari, wasu mutane suna ƙoƙarin farfado da harshen. Dan siyasar Sipaniya Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia yana haɓaka Romanò-Kalò, bambance-bambancen Romani na Duniya, waɗanda kalmomin Calo suka wadatar. Manufarsa ita ce sake haɗa tushen Calo da Romani.

Livonian gyara sashe

Template:Main Harshen Livonian, yaren Finnic, wanda aka taɓa yin magana game da kusan kashi ɗaya bisa uku na yankin Latvia na zamani, ya mutu a ƙarni na 21 tare da mutuwar mai magana ta ƙarshe Grizelda Kristiņa a ranar 2 ga Yuni 2013. A yau akwai kusan mutane 210 galibi suna zaune a ciki. Latvia waɗanda suka bayyana kansu a matsayin Livonian kuma suna magana da yaren akan matakin A1-A2 bisa ga Tsarin Tsarin Harsuna na gama gari na Turai da tsakanin mutane 20 zuwa 40 waɗanda ke magana da yaren akan matakin B1 zuwa sama. A yau duk masu magana suna koyon Livonian a matsayin harshe na biyu. Akwai shirye-shirye daban-daban da ke ilmantar da mutanen Latvia kan al'adun gargajiya da na harshe na Livonians da kuma cewa yawancin Latvia suna da zuriyar Livonian gama gari.

Shirye-shiryen da ya kamata a ambata sun haɗa da:

Livones.net tare da cikakkun bayanai game da harshe, tarihi da al'adu

Cibiyar Livonian ta Jami'ar Latvia tana yin bincike a kan yaren Livonian, sauran yarukan Finnic a Latvia da kuma samar da ƙamus na Livonian-Latvia-Estoniya mai fa'ida tare da raguwa/conjugations.

Virtual Livonia tana ba da bayanai kan yaren Livonian musamman nahawunsa

Mierlinkizt: Sansanin bazara na shekara-shekara don yara don koya wa yara game da yaren Livonian, al'adu da sauransu.

Līvõd Īt (Ƙungiyar Livonian)

Gadon harshe da al'adun Livonian yana cikin kundin al'adun Latvia kuma kariya, farfaɗowa da haɓaka Livonian kamar yadda dokar Latvia ta ba da garantin yare na asali.[39]

Old Prussian gyara sashe

Wasu 'yan masana ilimin harshe da masu ilimin falsafa suna da hannu wajen farfado da wani nau'i na tsohon Prussian da aka sake ginawa daga catechisms na Luther, Kalmomin Elbing, sunayen wuri, da kalmomin lamuni na Prussian a cikin Low Prussian yare na Jamusanci. Mutane da yawa dozin suna amfani da yaren a Lithuania, Kaliningrad, da Poland, haɗe da ƴan yara da suke yare biyu.[40]

Ƙungiyar Prusaspira ta buga fassarar su ta Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince. Piotr Szatkowski (Pīteris Šātkis) ne ya fassara littafin kuma aka sake shi a cikin 2015. Sauran ƙoƙarin al'ummomin Baltic Prussian sun haɗa da haɓaka ƙamus na kan layi, aikace-aikacen koyo da wasanni. Hakanan an yi ƙoƙari da yawa don samar da kiɗa tare da rubutattun waƙoƙi a cikin yaren Baltic Prussian da aka farfado, musamman a cikin Kaliningrad Oblast na Romowe Rikoito, Kellan da Āustras Laīwan, amma kuma a cikin Lithuania ta Kūlgrinda a cikin kundi na 2005 Prūsų Giesmės (Prussian) Hymės (Prussian) , kuma a cikin Latvia na Rasa Ensemble a cikin 1988 da Valdis Muktupāvels a cikin oratorio na 2005 "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex" wanda ke nuna sassa da yawa da aka rera a cikin Prussian..[41]

Muhimmi a cikin wannan farkawa shine Vytautas Mažiulis, wanda ya mutu a ranar 11 ga Afrilu 2009, da almajirinsa Letas Palmaitis, shugaban gwaji kuma marubucin gidan yanar gizon Prussian Reconstructions. Masu ba da gudummawa biyu marigayi sune Prāncis Arellis (Pranciškus Erelis), Lithuania, da Dailūns Russinis (Dailonis Rusiņš), Latvia. Bayan su, Twankstas Glabbis daga yankin Kaliningrad da Nērtiks Pamedīns daga Gabas-Prussia, yanzu Yaren mutanen Poland Warmia-Mazuria sun shiga ƙwazo..[Ana bukatan hujja]

Yola gyara sashe

Ƙungiyar farfaɗo da harshen Yola ta bunƙasa a Wexford a cikin 'yan shekarun nan, kuma cibiyar albarkatun "Gabble Ing Yola" na kayan Yola ta ce akwai kusan masu magana da harshen Yola kusan 140 a yau.[42]

Oceania gyara sashe

Australia gyara sashe

Turawan mulkin mallaka na Ostiraliya, da kuma irin barnar da al'ummomin Aborijin suka yi, sun yi mummunar tasiri a kan harsunan asali, musamman a kudu maso gabas da kudancin kasar, wanda ya bar wasu ba su da masu magana na gargajiya. Yawancin al'ummomin Aboriginal a Victoria da sauran wurare yanzu suna ƙoƙarin farfado da wasu daga cikin waɗannan harsuna. gungun dattawan Aboriginal da sauran mutane masu ilimi ne ke jagorantar aikin, tare da ma'aikatan harshen al'umma suna yin mafi yawan bincike da koyarwa. Suna nazarin bayanan, haɓaka tsarin rubutun kalmomi da ƙamus da shirya albarkatu. Ana yin shawarwari tare da haɗin gwiwa. Wasu al'ummomi suna ɗaukar masana harshe, kuma akwai kuma masana ilimin harshe waɗanda suka yi aiki da kansu, kamar Luise Hercus da Peter K. Austin.

A jihar Queensland, ana kokarin koyar da wasu harsunan ‘yan asalin kasar a makarantu da kuma samar da bita ga manya. Sama da harsuna 150 aka taba yin magana a cikin jihar, amma a yau kasa da 20 ake magana da su a matsayin harshen farko, kuma kasa da kashi biyu cikin dari na makarantu suna koyar da kowane yare na asali. Harshen Gunggari harshe ɗaya ne da ake farfaɗo da shi, inda ya rage masu jin harsuna uku kawai.

A cikin Yankin Arewa, aikin Pertame misali ne a tsakiyar Ostiraliya. Pertame, daga ƙasar kudancin Alice Springs, tare da Kogin Finke, yare ne a cikin rukunin harsunan Arrernte. Tare da ƙwararrun masu magana guda 20 kawai da suka rage zuwa 2018, Pertame Project yana neman riƙewa da farfado da harshen, wanda dattijon Pertame Christobel Swan ke jagoranta.

A arewa mai nisa na Kudancin Ostiraliya, harshen Diyari yana da shiri mai aiki da aiki, tare da kayan aikin koyarwa a makarantu da sauran al'umma. Har ila yau, a Kudancin Ostiraliya, akwai wata ƙungiya a Jami'ar Adelaide da ke koyarwa da kuma inganta amfani da harshen Kaurna, wanda Rob Amery ke jagoranta, wanda ya samar da littattafai da kayan aiki da yawa.

Sashen Ilimi da Horarwa na Victoria ya ba da rahoton rajistar ɗalibai 1,867 a makarantu 14 waɗanda ke ba da Shirin Harsunan Aboriginal a cikin jihar Victoria a cikin 2018.[43]

New Zealand gyara sashe

Template:Further Ɗaya daga cikin mafi kyawun shari'o'in nasarar dangi a cikin farfaɗowar harshe shine batun Maori, wanda kuma aka sani da te reo Māori. Harshen kakanni na ƴan asalin ƙasar Maori na New Zealand ne kuma abin hawa don ba da labari, waƙoƙin waƙa, da karanta zuriyarsu. Ana koyar da tarihin mutanen Maori a cikin Maori a cikin gidajen koyo masu tsarki ta hanyar watsawa ta baki. Ko bayan Maori ya zama rubutaccen harshe, an kiyaye al'adar baka.[44]

Da zarar Turawan mulkin mallaka suka fara, an kafa dokoki da yawa don inganta amfani da Ingilishi akan Maori a tsakanin ƴan asali. Dokar Dokar Ilimi ta 1847 ta ba da umarnin koyarwa a makaranta cikin Ingilishi da kuma kafa makarantun allo don hanzarta haɗa matasan Maori cikin al'adun Turai. Dokar Makaranta ta 1858 ta hana Māori magana a makarantu.

A cikin shekarun 1970, gungun matasan Maori, Ngā Tamatoa, sun yi nasarar yakin neman koyar da Maori a makarantu. Har ila yau, an kafa Kōhanga Reo, makarantun preschool na harshen Māori, da ake kira nests harshe. An ba da fifiko kan koyar da yara harshe tun suna ƙanana, dabara mai inganci don koyon harshe. An kafa Hukumar Harshen Maori a 1987, wanda ya haifar da sauye-sauye da dama na kasa da nufin farfado da Maori. Sun haɗa da shirye-shiryen watsa labarai da ake watsawa a cikin Maori, shirye-shiryen koleji na farko da ake koyarwa a Maori, da kuma mako na harshen Maori na shekara-shekara. Kowace iwi (kabila) ta ƙirƙiri shirin tsara harshe wanda ya dace da takamaiman yanayinsa. Wannan yunƙurin ya haifar da ƙaruwar yaran da ake koyarwa a Maori a makarantu tun daga 1996.[44]

Hawaiian gyara sashe

Template:Main A shida daga cikin tsibirai bakwai na Hawai da ake zaune, Turancin Ingilishi ya ƙauracewa Hawaiian kuma yanzu ba a amfani da shi azaman harshen sadarwa na yau da kullun. Banda haka shi ne Niʻihau, inda Bahaushe ba a taɓa yin hijira ba, ba a taɓa yin haɗari ba, kuma har yanzu ana amfani da shi kusan keɓe. Kokarin farfado da harshen ya karu a cikin 'yan shekarun nan. Makarantun nutsar da harshen Hawaiyan yanzu suna buɗe wa yaran da iyalansu ke son riƙe (ko gabatar da) harshen Hawai zuwa tsara na gaba. Gidan Rediyon Jama'a na gida yana da ɗan gajeren sashi mai taken "kalmar Hawai na rana". Bugu da ƙari, bugu na Lahadi na Honolulu Star-Bulletin da magajinsa, Honolulu Star- Advertiser, ya ƙunshi ɗan taƙaitaccen labarin da ake kira Kauakūkalahale, wanda ɗalibi ya rubuta gaba ɗaya cikin harshen Hawaii.[45]

Ƙoƙarin farfadowa na yanzu gyara sashe

Language revitalization efforts are ongoing around the world. Revitalization teams are utilizing modern technologies to increase contact with indigenous languages and to record traditional knowledge.

Mexico gyara sashe

A Meziko, yaren mutanen Mixtec ya ta'allaka ne akan hulɗar yanayi, yanayi, da kuma abin da yake nufi ga rayuwarsu [Ana bukatan hujja]. Shirin LINKS na UNESCO (ilimin gida da na asali) kwanan nan ya gudanar da wani aiki don ƙirƙirar ƙamus na Mixtec kalmomi da jimloli masu alaƙa da yanayi. UNESCO ta yi imanin cewa ilimin gargajiya na mutanen Mixtec ta hanyar zurfin alaƙarsu da abubuwan yanayi na iya ba da haske kan hanyoyin magance sauyin yanayi. Manufar su na samar da ƙamus shine su "samar da tattaunawa tsakanin masana da masu ilimin gargajiya".[46]

Canada gyara sashe

In Kanada, aikin Wapikoni Mobile yana tafiya zuwa al'ummomin asali kuma yana ba da darussan yin fim. Shugabannin shirye-shiryen suna tafiya a cikin Kanada tare da sassan samarwa na audiovisual na wayar hannu, kuma suna da nufin samarwa matasa 'yan asalin hanyar hanyar haɗi da al'adun su ta hanyar fim ɗin zaɓin da suka zaɓa. Shirin Wapikona yana gabatar da fina-finansa ga abubuwan da ke faruwa a duniya a matsayin ƙoƙari na yada ilimin al'adu da harshe na asali..[47]

Chile gyara sashe

Daga cikin matasa a Rapa Nui (Easter Island), kashi goma cikin dari suna koyon yaren uwa. Sauran al'umma sun karɓi Mutanen Espanya don sadarwa tare da ƙasashen waje da tallafawa masana'antar yawon shakatawa. Ta hanyar haɗin gwiwa tsakanin UNESCO da Chilean Corporación Nacional de Desarrollo Indigena, an ƙirƙiri Sashen Harshe da Al'adu na Rapa Nui a Makarantar Lorenzo Baeza Vega. Tun 1990, sashen ya ƙirƙiri rubutun ilimin firamare a cikin yaren Rapa Nui. A cikin 2017, Nid Rapa Nui, ƙungiya mai zaman kanta kuma an ƙirƙira da manufar kafa makarantar da ke koyar da kwasa-kwasan gabaɗaya a Rapa Nui.[48]

Amfanin kiwon lafiya na farfado da harshe gyara sashe

An danganta farfaɗo da harshe da ƙarin sakamakon kiwon lafiya ga al'ummomin ƴan asalin da ke da hannu wajen maido da harshen gargajiya. Fa'idodin sun fito ne daga ingantacciyar lafiyar hankali ga membobin al'umma, haɓaka alaƙa da al'adu, ainihi, da ma'anar gaba ɗaya. Harsunan ƴan asali ginshiƙi ne a cikin samuwar ainihi, suna ba da hanyoyin bayyana al'adu, hukuma, alaƙar ruhi da kakanni. Ana ɗaukar haɗin kai da al'adu a matsayin muhimmiyar rawa wajen haɓaka yara, kuma haƙƙi ne na yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya.[49]

Kamar yadda ake aiwatar da mulkin mallaka da kuma ilimin harshe na gaba ta hanyar manufofi irin su waɗanda suka haifar da Ƙarni na Sata na Australiya sun lalata wannan haɗin. An ba da shawarar cewa farfaɗowar harshe na iya taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen magance ɓarna tsakanin tsararraki da aka yi. Masu bincike a Jami'ar Adelaide da Cibiyar Nazarin Kiwon Lafiya da Lafiya ta Kudancin Australia sun gano cewa farfado da harshe na harsunan Aborigin yana da alaƙa da ingantacciyar lafiyar hankali. Ɗaya daga cikin binciken a cikin Barngarla Community a Kudancin Ostiraliya ya kasance yana kallon cikakkiyar fa'idodin sake fasalin harshe, warkar da tabo na tunani da tunani, da gina alaƙa ga al'umma da ƙasa waɗanda ke haifar da lafiya da lafiya. Binciken ya gano alaƙar mutanen Barngarla da harshensu a matsayin wani abu mai ƙarfi na haɓaka ingantaccen al'adu da na sirri; mutane suna da alaƙa da harshe kamar yadda suke da al'ada, kuma al'ada ita ce mabuɗin sanin su. Wasu masu goyon bayan sun yi iƙirarin cewa sake fasalin harshe wani nau'i ne na ƙarfafawa da kuma gina ƙaƙƙarfan alaƙa tare da al'umma da gaba ɗaya.[50]

Suka gyara sashe

JOhn McWhorter ya yi iƙirarin cewa shirye-shiryen farfado da harsunan asali ba za su taɓa yin tasiri sosai ba saboda matsalolin aiki da ke tattare da su. Ya kuma yi nuni da cewa, mutuwar harshe ba wai yana nufin mutuwar al’ada ba. Har ila yau furcin ƴan asalin yana yiwuwa ko da asalin harshen ya ɓace, kamar yadda yake a cikin ƙungiyoyin ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka da kuma tabbatar da ƙarfin al'adun baƙar fata a Amurka, a tsakanin mutanen da ba Yarabanci ba amma Ingilishi. Ya bayar da hujjar cewa mutuwar harshe, abin ban mamaki, alama ce ta ƙaura da raba sararin samaniya: "Don kiyaye harsuna daban-daban a cikin tsararraki suna faruwa ne kawai a cikin wariyar kai da ba a saba gani ba - kamar na Amish-ko wariya.".[51]

Kenan Malikya kuma bayar da hujjar cewa "rashin hankali" ne a yi kokarin kiyaye dukkan harsunan duniya, saboda mutuwar harshe dabi'a ce kuma a yawancin lokuta ba makawa, ko da tare da shiga tsakani. Ya ba da shawarar cewa mutuwar harshe yana inganta sadarwa ta hanyar tabbatar da ƙarin mutane suna magana da harshe ɗaya. Wannan na iya amfanar tattalin arziki kuma ya rage rikici.[52][53]

Kare tsirarun harsuna daga ɓarkewa galibi ba damuwa ba ne ga masu magana da harshen da ya mamaye. Sau da yawa ana samun kyama da zalunci da gangan ga ƙananan harsuna, don dacewa da al'ada da tattalin arzikin ƙungiyoyin tsiraru..[54]A wasu lokuta gwamnatoci suna ganin cewa farashin shirye-shiryen farfado da samar da kayan masarufi daban-daban ya yi yawa ba za su iya ɗauka ba on.[55]

Duba gyara sashe

Ayyukan dijital da wuraren ajiya gyara sashe

Kungiyoyi gyara sashe

Jeri gyara sashe

Bayanan kula gyara sashe

Manazarta gyara sashe

  1. ↑ Tsunoda, Tasaku. Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter, 2005. p. 169. Print.
  2. ↑ Pine, Aidan; Turin, Mark (2017-03-29). "Language Revitalization". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.8. ISBN 9780199384655.
  3. ↑ Grenoble, Leonore A.; Whaley, Lindsay J. (2005). Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0521016520. Hebrew is cited by Paulston et al. (1993:276) as 'the only true example of language revival.'
  4. ↑ Crystal, David (2010). "Language Planning". In Crystal, David (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Third ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 382–387.
  5. ↑ "Endangered Languages". Archived from the original on 2014-04-09. Retrieved 2014-04-20.
  6. ↑ Grenoble, Leonore A.; Whaley, Lindsay J. (2005). Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0521016520.
  7. ↑ Tsunoda, Tasaku. Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter, 2005. Print.
  8. ↑ New Perspectives on Endangered Languages. Ed. José A.F. Farfán and Fernando F. Ramallo. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2010. pp. 1-7. Print.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/Language_vitality_and_endangerment_EN.pdf Template:Bare URL PDF
  10. ↑ Tsunoda, Tasaku (2005). Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization. Berlin: Mounton de Gruyter. p. 170.
  11. ↑ Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language Shift: Theory and Practice of Assistance to Threatened Languages. Clevedon : Multilingual Matters.
  12. ↑ Fishman, J. A. (ed.) (2001). Can Threatened Languages Be Saved? Reversing Language Shift, Revisited: A 21st Century Perspective. Clevedon : Multilingual Matters.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Tsunoda, Tasaku (2005). Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter. p. 201.
  14. ↑ Crystal, D. (2000). Language Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 130–141. ISBN 0-521-65321-5.
  15. ↑ Thomason, Sarah (2015). Endangered Languages: An Introduction. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-521-68453-8.
  16. ↑ Thomason, Sarah (2015). Endangered Languages: An Introduction. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 156–159. ISBN 978-0-521-68453-8.
  17. ↑ Thomason, Sarah (2015). Endangered Languages: An Introduction. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-521-68453-8.
  18. ↑ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad and Walsh, Michael 2011. 'Stop, Revive, Survive: Lessons from the Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures', Australian Journal of Linguistics Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 111-127.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Ghil'ad Zuckermann, "Stop, revive and survive", The Australian, Higher Education, June 6, 2012.
  20. ↑ Nancy C. Dorian, ‘Purism v. compromise in language revitalisation and language revival’ in Language in Society 23, pp. 479-494.
  21. ↑ Jones, Mari C. (1998). Language Obsolescence and Revitalization: Linguistic Change in Two Sociolinguistically Contrasting Welsh Communities (in Turanci). Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198237112. Retrieved 6 April 2017 – via Google Books.
  22. ↑ NeSmith, R. Keao (2005). "Tūtū's Hawaiian and the Emergence of a Neo Hawaiian Language" (PDF). 'Ōiwi Journal3—A Native Hawaiian Journal. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
  23. ↑ Ó Béarra, Feargal (July 2008). "Academic paper insights: Late Modern Irish and the Dynamics of Language Change and Language Death" (in Turanci). Retrieved 6 April 2017. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  24. ↑ O'Rahilly, Thomas Francis (1932). Irish Dialects Past and Present: With Chapters on Scottish and Manx (in Turanci). Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. p. 121. ISBN 9780901282552. Retrieved 6 April 2017 – via Google Books.
  25. ↑ McRae, Neil. "Dìlseachd, Lughad agus Saor-thoileachas: moladh airson iomairt Gàidhlig a dh'fhaodadh obrachadh" [Loyalty, Language and Volunteerism: a proposal for a Gaelic initiative that could work] (PDF) (in Kʼabilan Scots Gaelic). Retrieved 6 April 2017.
  26. ↑ "Coptic: Ancient language still spoken today". EgyptToday. August 8, 2017.
  27. ↑ Valentino, Andrea. "The alphabets at risk of extinction". BBC.
  28. ↑ "FirstVoices celebrates International Mother Language Day with the launch of a new version of its free, open-source, Indigenous". Canadian Press. 21 February 2024. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
  29. ↑ "UAS ceremony honors 670 grads". Juneau Empire. 3 May 2016. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  30. ↑ King, Kendall (2001). Language Revitalization Processes and Prospects: Quichua in the Ecuadorian Andes. New York: Multilingual Matters LTD. pp. 187–218. ISBN 1-85359-494-6.
  31. ↑ "Keeping a language alive". UCI News (in Turanci). 2018-12-03. Retrieved 2023-05-29.
  32. ↑ Premsrirat, Suwilai. "Chong Language Revitalization Project" (PDF). Mekong Watch. Mahidol University. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  33. ↑ Carnie, Andrew. "Modern Irish: Modern Irish: A Case Study in Language Revival Failure." (1995).
  34. ↑ ‘Language and Occupational Status: Linguistic Elitism in the Irish Labour Market,’ The Economic and Social Review, Vol. 40, No. 4, Winter, 2009, pp. 435–460: https://ideas.repec.org/a/eso/journl/v40y2009i4p435-460.html
  35. ↑ "Census shows decline in Gaelic speakers 'slowed'". BBC News Online. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
  36. ↑ Campsie, Alison. "Gaelic speakers map: Where in Scotland is Gaelic thriving?". The Scotsman (in Turanci). Retrieved 6 April 2017.
  37. ↑ "Lifelines for indigenous languages | The World Weekly". www.theworldweekly.com. Archived from the original on 2018-01-07. Retrieved 2018-01-06.
  38. ↑ "Guild of Bards". Gorseth Kernow. Archived from the original on 2009-07-06.
  39. ↑ "Valsts valodas likums" [State Language Law]. LIKUMI.LV (in Latbiyanci).
  40. ↑ Szatkowski, Piotr (2021). "Language practices in a family of Prussian language revivalists: Conclusions based on short-term participants observation". Pismo Humanistów. 18 (2626). doi:10.11649/a.0000 (inactive 31 January 2024).CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of ga Janairu, 2024 (link)
  41. ↑ "Oratorio". Retrieved 29 August 2014.
  42. ↑ "How many speakers of Yola are there now?". google (in Turanci). Retrieved 2022-01-19.
  43. ↑ "Languages Provision in Victorian Government Schools, 2018" (PDF). State of Victoria (Department of Education and Training). June 19, 2019. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 23, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Senft, Gunter (2010). Endangered Austronesian and Australian Aboriginal Languages. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 185–192. ISBN 9780858836235.
  45. ↑ Wilson, W. H.; Kamanä, K. (2001). Mai loko mai o ka 'i'ini: Proceeding from a dream: The Aha Pûnana Leo connection in Hawaiian language revitalization. In L. Hinton & K. Hale (eds.). The green book of language revitalization in practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. pp. 147–177.
  46. ↑ Morales, Aracely Torres (January–March 2019). "Ndejama cuia chi ini zaza: Mexico's Mixtec people know how to speak the language of nature" (PDF). The UNESCO Courier: 9. doi:10.18356/885fb3d6-en.
  47. ↑ Gomez, Saturnin (January–March 2019). "Manon Barbeau: A Camera in Her Heart" (PDF). The UNESCO Courier. UNESCO: 10–12 – via UNESCO.org.
  48. ↑ Sopova, Jasmina; Ortega, Carolina (January–March 2019). "Rapa Nui: Back from the Brink" (PDF). The UNESCO Courier. UNESCO: 13–15 – via UNESCO.org.
  49. ↑ "United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Children". UNICEF. Archived from the original on 2021-08-17. Retrieved 2021-08-26.
  50. ↑ "Living languages". AIATSIS. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
  51. ↑ McWhorter, John (2009). "The Cosmopolitan Tongue: The Universality of English". World Affairs. Sage Publications, Inc. 172 (2): 61–68. ISSN 0043-8200. JSTOR 20671445. Retrieved 2024-02-11.
  52. ↑ "Are dying languages worth saving?". BBC News. 15 September 2010.
  53. ↑ Malik, Kenan (November 20, 2000). "Let Them Die". Prospect. Archived from the original on December 4, 2002.
  54. ↑ Ellis, Peter Berresford. 1985. The Celtic Revolution: A Study in Anti-imperialism. Talybont: Y Lolfa.
  55. ↑ Tsunoda, Tasaku. Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter, 2005. 158-159. Print.
  56. ↑ "Number of sentences per language - Tatoeba". tatoeba.org. Retrieved 2022-11-14.

Kara karantawa gyara sashe

  • Grenoble, L. A. and Whaley, L. J. (1998). Endangered Languages: Language Loss and Community Response. Cambridge University Press. (08033994793.ABA)
  • Nettle, D. and Romaine, S. (2000). Vanishing Voices. Oxford University Press. (08033994793.ABA)
  • Reyhner, J. (ed.) (1999). Revitalizing indigenous languages. Flagstaff, AZ : Northern Arizona University, Center for Excellence in Education. (08033994793.ABA)
  • Bastardas-Boada, A. (2019). From language shift to language revitalization and sustainability. A complexity approach to linguistic ecology. Barcelona: Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona. (08033994793.ABA)

Hanyoyin haɗi na waje gyara sashe

Template:External links

Ƙungiyoyi gyara sashe

Kanada gyara sashe

Amurka gyara sashe

California gyara sashe

Fasaha gyara sashe

Dabaru gyara sashe

Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Farfadowar_Harshe&oldid=389575"