Wikipedia

Boden Professor of Sanskrit election, 1860

(an turo daga Müller)

Zaɓen da aka yi a 1860 don matsayin Boden Farfesa na Sanskrit a Jami'ar Oxford wata gasa ce tsakanin 'yan takara biyu da ke ba da hanyoyi daban-daban ga malanta Sanskrit . Daya shine Monier Williams, Baturen Ingila wanda yayi karatun Oxford wanda ya kwashe shekaru 14 yana koyar da Sanskrit ga wadanda suke shirin yin aiki a British India Company na Gabashin Indiya . Sauran, Max Müller, malami ne haifaffen Jamus a Oxford wanda ya kware a fannin ilimin halin dan Adam, kimiyyar harshe. Ya shafe shekaru da yawa yana aiki akan bugu na Rig Veda (tsohuwar tarin waƙoƙin Vedic Sanskrit ) kuma ya sami suna na duniya don karatunsa. Williams, akasin haka, yayi aiki akan kayan daga baya kuma yana da ɗan lokaci don makarantar "nahiya" ta malanta Sanskrit wanda Müller ya misalta. Williams ya ɗauki nazarin Sanskrit a matsayin hanya ta ƙarshe, wato maida Indiya zuwa Kiristanci. A ra'ayin Müller, aikinsa, yayin da zai taimaki masu wa'azi a ƙasashen waje, yana da amfani a matsayin ƙarshensa.

Infotaula d'esdevenimentBoden Professor of Sanskrit election, 1860
Iri zaɓe
Kwanan watan 1860
Ƙasa Birtaniya
Monier Williams, wanda aka zaba a matsayin Farfesa na Boden na biyu na Sanskrit a 1860; Lewis Carroll ne ya dauki wannan hoton.

Zaben dai ya zo ne a daidai lokacin da jama'a suka tafka muhawara game da rawar da Birtaniyya ta taka a Indiya sakamakon tawayen da Indiya ta yi a shekara ta 1857 . An raba ra'ayoyi kan ko ya kamata a yi ƙoƙari sosai don sauya Indiya ko kuma a ci gaba da kula da al'adu da al'adun gida. Dukkan mutanen biyu sun yi gwagwarmaya don neman kuri'un masu zabe ( Convocation na jami'a, wanda ya ƙunshi fiye da 3,700). wadanda suka kammala karatun digiri) ta hanyar bayyanawa da wasikun jaridu. Williams ya nuna matukar damuwa a yakin neman zabensa kan manufar asalin wanda ya kafa kujerar, cewa mai rike da mukamin ya taimaka wajen sauya Indiya ta hanyar yada litattafai na Kirista. Ra'ayin Müller shi ne cewa aikinsa a kan Rig Veda yana da matukar amfani ga aikin mishan, kuma ya buga shaidar hakan. Ya kuma so ya koyar da darussa masu yawa kamar tarihin Indiya da wallafe-wallafe don taimaka wa masu wa’azi na mishan, malamai, da ma’aikatan gwamnati – shawara da Williams ya soki cewa bai dace da ainihin abin da mai taimako ya yi ba. Kamfen ɗin masu hamayya sun fitar da tallace-tallacen jaridu da watsa shirye-shirye, kuma jaridu daban-daban sun goyi bayan kowane mutum. Ko da yake galibi ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin wanda ya fi Williams a malanta, Müller yana da lahani biyu (a gaban wasu) kasancewar Jamusanci da kuma samun ra'ayoyin Kirista masu sassaucin ra'ayi. Wasu daga cikin maganganun jaridun da ke goyon bayan Williams sun dogara ne akan wata ikirari na kasa na samun Bature a matsayin farfesa Boden don taimakawa da aikin mulki da canza Indiya.

An ba da jiragen ƙasa na musamman zuwa Oxford a ranar zaɓe, 7 ga Disamba, 1860, don waɗanda ba mazaunan Convocation ba don kada kuri'unsu. A karshen yakin neman zabe, Williams ya samu rinjaye da kuri'u sama da 220. Bayan haka, ya taimaka wajen kafa Cibiyar Indiya a Oxford, ya sami matsayin jarumi, kuma ya rike kujera har mutuwarsa a 1899. Müller, ko da yake ya ji takaicin shan kashinsa, ya ci gaba da zama a Oxford har tsawon rayuwarsa, amma bai taba koyar da Sanskrit a can ba. Zaɓen 1860 shine karo na ƙarshe da Convocation ya zaɓi Farfesa Boden, saboda an cire wannan ikon a 1882 sakamakon gyare-gyaren da majalisar ta yi. As of 2017 , Farfesan har yanzu yana nan, kuma yanzu shine farkon farfesa na Sanskrit na ƙarshe a Burtaniya.

Fage

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Matsayin farfesa na Boden a Jami'ar Oxford an kafa shi ta hanyar wasiyyar Laftanar Kanar Joseph Boden na 'Yan Ta'addar Bombay, wanda ya mutu a 1811. Nufinsa ya ba da cewa a kan mutuwar 'yarsa (wanda ya faru a cikin 1827), ya kamata dukiyarsa ta wuce zuwa jami'a don ba da kuɗin Farfesa na Sanskrit . Manufarsa ita ce ya mai da mutanen Indiya [2] zuwa Kiristanci "ta hanyar yada ilimin littattafai masu tsarki a cikinsu". Dokokin jami'ar da ke kula da kujera sun tabbatar da cewa membobin Convocation su zabi Farfesa – duk wadanda suka samu Digiri na Master of Arts na Oxford, ko sun koyar a jami’a ko a’a – maimakon ta farfesa da ’yan’uwan koleji . [3] A lokacin zaben 1860, akwai 3,786 membobin Convocation. [4] A cewar masanin tarihin addini Gwilym Beckerlegge, a lokacin ana daukar matakin farfesa a matsayin "daraja da kyakkyawar lada". Wani edita a cikin jaridar Burtaniya The Times a cikin 1860 ya ce aikin farfesa yana "daya daga cikin mafi mahimmanci, mafi tasiri, kuma sanannun cibiyoyi a Oxford, ba a ce a cikin dukan duniya masu wayewa." Ya biya tsakanin £900 da £1,000 kowace shekara har tsawon rayuwa. [5]

Farfesa na farko na Boden, Horace Hayman Wilson, an zabe shi a 1832 kuma ya mutu a ranar 8 ga Mayu 1860. Zaɓen wanda zai gaje shi ya zo ne a lokacin muhawarar jama'a game da yanayin aikin mishan na Burtaniya a Indiya, musamman bayan tawayen Indiya na 1857 . Kamfanin Gabashin Indiya, wanda ke kula da yankunan Birtaniya har sai sun shiga cikin daular Birtaniya a cikin 1858, yana da manufofin gaba ɗaya har zuwa 1813 na rashin tsangwama ga al'adun Indiya, ciki har da addini. Masu mishan Kirista sun buƙaci lasisi don yin addininsu. A aikace, yawancin suna iya aiki ba tare da lasisi ba, in ban da masu bishara, waɗanda aka ɗauke su a matsayin masu tsattsauran ra'ayi a zamanin da Kiristoci daga wasu wurare suka kasance a shirye don jure wa sauran addinai. Yayin da ƙungiyar Ikklesiyoyin bishara ke daɗa ƙarfi, ta matsa don ƙara ƙoƙari don kawo Kiristanci zuwa Indiya, don haka kamfanin ya sassauta hanyarsa ga masu mishan a 1813. [6] Bayan 1858, gwamnatin Biritaniya ta yi jinkirin haifar da ƙarin tashin hankali ta hanyar tsoma baki tare da al'adun gida da addini, amma yawancin waɗanda ake zargi da tafiyar da Indiya su kansu masu bishara ne masu tausayi ga ƙoƙarin maida ƙasar. Kamar yadda Beckerlegge ya yi tsokaci, "ci gaban aikin Kirista ya kasance mai alaƙa da yunƙurin ayyana matsayin Biritaniya a Indiya da kuma tabbatar da kasancewar Birtaniyya a Indiya." [7] Maganar ita ce ko Biritaniya tana can ne kawai don ta mallaki Indiya ko kuma ta “waye” ta, kuma idan ta biyun, ko za ta zana ko lalata al’adun Indiya da addinin da ake da su. [8] Da yawa daga cikin waɗanda suka goyi bayan ƙara aikin wa’azi a ƙasar Indiya, in ji Beckerlegge, ya ɗauki abubuwan da suka faru a shekara ta 1857 a matsayin “ba kome ba face hukuncin Allah” kan gazawar Biritaniya na kawo Kiristanci a ƙasar. [9]

Akwai mazhabobin tunani guda biyu kan ko ya kamata a koyar da Sanskrit don manufar taimakawa gudanarwa da jujjuyawar Indiya, ko don cancantar ta. Kamfanin Gabashin Indiya ya ba da umarni a Sanskrit ga ma'aikatansa a kwalejin da ke Haileybury, Hertfordshire, da Kwalejin Fort William a Calcutta, don ilmantar da su a al'adun gida. Ga wasu, wannan ya haifar da sha'awar addini da al'adun Indiya kamar yadda aka bayyana a cikin rubutun Sanskrit. Wannan ya bambanta da halin da ake ciki a nahiyar Turai, inda masana suka bincika Sanskrit a matsayin wani ɓangare na "kimiyyar harshe", kwatanta ilimin falsafa, maimakon dalilai na mulkin mallaka. Ƙananan malaman Turai sun ziyarci Indiya, amma yawancin Sanskritists na Birtaniya sun zauna kuma sun yi aiki a can. [10] Wasu malaman Birtaniyya a wasu fagagen suna da shakku mai ƙarfi a kowane yanayi game da Sanskrit, a matsayin "ɗan jabu na yare da aka ƙera daga Latin da Girkanci", ko kuma suna tabbatar da kaɗan "sai dai dangi mara kyau tsakanin Birtaniyya da Brahmin", a cikin kalmomin Jami'ar Amurka Linda Dowling. [11]

'Yan takara

gyara sashe
 
Max Müller, wanda Lewis Carroll ya yi hoton a 1857

Ko da yake maza biyar sun nuna aniyarsu ta neman kujerar a shekara ta 1860 ko kuma aka ba su shawara a cikin rashi, a ƙarshe biyun da suka fafata a zaɓen su ne Monier Williams da Max Müller . Williams (wanda aka sani daga baya a rayuwarsa da Sir Monier Monier-Williams) ɗan hafsan soja ne kuma an haife shi a Indiya. Ya yi karatu a takaice a Kwalejin Balliol, Oxford, kafin horo a Haileybury don aikin farar hula a Indiya. Mutuwar dan uwansa a yakin Indiya ya sa ya koma Oxford don kammala digiri. Ya kuma yi karatun Sanskrit tare da Wilson kafin ya koyar da wannan da sauran harsuna a Haileybury daga 1844 zuwa 1858, lokacin da aka rufe bayan tawayen Indiya. Ya shirya ƙamus na Turanci-Sanskrit, a dalilin Wilson, wanda Kamfanin Gabashin Indiya ya buga a 1851; Kamus na Sanskrit-Turanci ya sami goyon bayan Sakataren Gwamnati na Indiya . Kamar yadda masanin ɗan adam ɗan ƙasar Holland Peter van der Veer ya rubuta, Williams "yana da kishin bishara" daidai da ra'ayoyin da suka zaburar da Boden don kafa kujera. [12]

Müller dan kasar Jamus ne na Anhalt-Dessau kuma ya karbi Sanskrit a jami'a a matsayin sabon kalubale na ilimi bayan ya koyi Girkanci da Latin. [13] A wannan lokacin, Sanskrit wani sabon fanni ne na nazari na kwatankwacinsa a Turai, kuma dangantakarsa da harsunan gargajiya na gargajiya ya jawo sha'awa daga waɗanda ke nazarin yanayi da tarihin harsuna. [14] Ya sami digiri na uku a Jami'ar Leipzig a 1843, yana da shekaru 19, kuma bayan shekara guda yana karatu a Berlin ya fara aiki a Paris akan bugu na farko na Rig Veda (tsohuwar tarin waƙoƙin Vedic Sanskrit ). Abin da ya kamata ya zama ɗan gajeren ziyara a Ingila don bincike a 1846 ya juya ya zama tsawon rayuwa. Jami'in diflomasiyyar Prussian Baron von Bunsen da Wilson sun rinjayi darektocin Kamfanin Gabashin Indiya don ba da tallafin kuɗi ga Jami'ar Oxford Press don buga Rig Veda . Müller ya zauna a Oxford a 1848 kuma ya ci gaba da binciken Sanskrit, ya zama Farfesa Taylorian na Harsunan Turai na Zamani a 1854 bayan shekaru uku a matsayin mataimakin farfesa; [13] a cikin wannan sakon an biya shi £ 500 a kowace shekara, rabin kuɗin kujerar Boden. [15] Wani batu na Biritaniya daga 1855, an zabe shi ɗan'uwan All Souls College a 1858, "girma da ba a taɓa ganin irin ta ba ga baƙo a wancan lokacin", a cikin kalmomin marubucin tarihin rayuwarsa, marubucin Indiya Nirad C. Chaudhuri . [16]

Wasu malamai uku sun nuna aniyar tsayawa takarar kujerar, ko kuma wasu ne suka tsayar da su, amma sun janye kafin kada kuri’a. An sanar da takarar Edward Cowell, Farfesa na Sanskrit a Kwalejin Gwamnati a Calcutta, a cikin The Times a ranar 28 ga Mayu 1860, inda aka ce Wilson ya furta shi "wanda ya cancanci" ya gaje shi. Daga baya ya rubuta daga Indiya yana ƙin tsayawa adawa da Müller. Ralph Griffith, tsohon malamin Boden wanda farfesa ne a Kwalejin Sanskrit ta Gwamnati a Benares, ya sanar da takararsa a watan Agusta 1860, amma ya janye a watan Nuwamba. James R. Ballantyne, shugaban kwalejin a Benares, an gabatar da shi a watan Yuni 1860 ta abokai da ke Ingila, waɗanda suka bayyana shi a matsayin "shugaban malaman Sanscrit na Birtaniya".

Ma'anar sunan farko Müller

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  Müller ya sanar da takararsa a ranar 14 ga Mayu 1860, kwanaki shida bayan mutuwar Wilson. Mika wuyansa ga Convocation ya yi nuni ga aikinsa na gyara Rig Veda, yana mai cewa idan ba tare da shi ba ’yan mishan ba za su iya cikakken koyo game da koyarwar addinin Hindu ba, wanda ya hana aikinsu. Saboda haka ya yi la'akari da cewa "ya kashe babban ɓangaren rayuwata wajen inganta abin da ya kafa Shugaban Sanskrit." [17] Ya yi alkawarin yin aiki na musamman kan Sanskrit, kuma ya ce zai ba da shaida daga “mafi shaharar malaman Sanskrit a Turai da Indiya” da kuma daga masu wa’azi na mishan da suka yi amfani da littattafansa don taimakawa “harba tsoffin tsarin bautar gumaka” a Indiya. [17] A lokacin da ya dace, ya sami damar ba da jerin ƙungiyoyin mishan da suka nemi kwafin Rig Veda daga Kamfanin Gabashin Indiya, gami da Ƙungiyar Mishan ta Coci da Society for the Propagation of the Gospel . [18]

Bayanin Williams

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Williams ya bayyana aniyarsa ta tsayawa takara a ranar 15 ga Mayu 1860, kwana daya bayan Müller. A rubuce-rubucensa na mika wuya ga Taro, ya jaddada cancantarsa na nadi bisa la'akari da buri na mishan na Boden. Bayan ya ba da cikakkun bayanai game da rayuwarsa da aikinsa, musamman kwarewarsa a Sanskrit da aka samu a Haileybury, ya bayyana cewa a cikin shekaru 14 da suka gabata "ra'ayin rayuwata daya ne in sa kaina cikin tattaunawa da Sanskrit, kuma ta kowace hanya a cikin ikona. domin saukaka nazarin adabinsa”. [19] Ya tabbatar wa masu jefa ƙuri'a cewa, idan aka zabe ni, "mafi ƙarfin ƙarfina za a ba da shi ga abu ɗaya wanda wanda ya kafa shi ke da shi; ' Haɓaka ilimi na gabaɗaya da mahimmanci na harshen Sanskrit, a matsayin hanyar ba da damar Ingilishi. a ci gaba da juyar da ’yan asalin Indiya zuwa addinin Kirista. ' [19] Ba kamar Müller ba, ya ɗauki nazarin Sanskrit "a matsayin babbar hanya ga juyar da addinin Hindu na mishan maimakon a matsayin ƙarshensa", kamar yadda Dowling ya faɗa. [11] Ta wannan hanya, Dowling ya ce, yana iya ƙoƙarin karkatar da hankali daga "ƙwarewar iyawarsa a cikin Sanskrit na gargajiya" idan aka kwatanta da "Nasarar da aka yarda da ita a duniya". [11] Bugu da ƙari, roko ga ainihin nufin Boden ya zo ne a lokacin da taron ya kasance ba ya kula da abubuwan da aka bayyana na masu taimako. [20]

Yaƙin neman zaɓe

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  A cikin watan Agustan 1860, Müller ya rubuta wa membobin Convocation game da shirye-shiryensa na koyar da batutuwa masu yawa ban da Sanskrit, gami da kwatanta ilimin falsafa, tarihin Indiya, da adabi. Koyar da yaren kawai "zai zama koma baya" don karimcin Boden, ya rubuta. [21] Ta wannan hanyar, zai taimaka wajen wadata masu mishan '' ƙwararrun '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' Ta wannan hanyar, zai taimaka wajen samar da 'yan mishan. [22]

Bi da bi, Williams ya rubuta cewa idan Boden ya bar umarnin cewa mutumin da aka zaba ya kamata ya kasance "mafi yuwuwar tabbatar da suna a duniya ga Shugaban Sanskrit, na furta cewa da na yi jinkirin gurfanar da zane na." [23] Duk da haka, ba haka lamarin yake ba kuma zai zama "marasa hujja" dangane da dokokin da ke kula da kujera idan farfesa zai yi lacca a kan batutuwa masu yawa. A ganinsa, adabin Vedic ya kasance "ba shi da mahimmanci" kuma adabin falsafa "sufi ne da rashin fahimta", yayin da "lokacin gargajiya ko na zamani" (dokoki, wakoki guda biyu na jaruntaka, da wasan kwaikwayo) sune "mafi mahimmanci". ". [24] Da yake tunatar da masu karatunsa cewa ya shirya wasan kwaikwayo guda biyu na Sanskrit, ya bayyana cewa wallafe-wallafen lokaci na uku sun ƙunshi nassosin Sanskrit, ba ("kamar yadda aka yi imani da shi a yanzu") Veda, "har yanzu ƙasa da Rig Veda". [24] Ya yi tsokaci cewa fitowar Müller na Rig Veda yana buƙatar “kashe lokaci, aiki, kuɗi, da ilimi fiye da yadda aka ba da kowane bugu na Littafi Mai Tsarki,” ya ƙara da cewa Boden ba ya nufin ya “taimakawa mai wa’azi a ƙasashen waje. aiki ta hanyar dawwama da kuma yada Nassosin Vedic wadanda ba su da tushe." Ya ce tsarin nasa na karatun Sanskrit, tare da kamus ɗinsa da littattafan nahawu, ya “ dace da tunanin Ingilishi”, sabanin tsarin “nahiya” da “falsafa” na Müller, wanda ya yi magana da nassosin da ba su dace da Hindu na zamani ba cewa mishan ba za su amfana ba. daga karatu. [22]

A cikin wata wasika zuwa The Times da aka buga a ranar 29 ga Oktoba 1860, Müller ya yi magana da Williams. Ga da'awar cewa ba zai zama rashin hujja ba a koyar da tarihi, falsafa, da sauran batutuwa a matsayin farfesa na Boden, ya nakalto daga ɗaya daga cikin laccocin jama'a na Wilson wanda a ciki ya ce ya kasance burinsa ya ba da "ra'ayi na gabaɗaya game da cibiyoyin. da yanayin zamantakewa, adabi, da addinin Hindu”. [25] Ya lura cewa ya buga a cikin dukkan bangarorin uku da Williams ya raba littattafan Sanskrit a cikinsu, kuma ya yi sabani game da ra'ayin Williams game da mahimmancin adabin Vedic dangane da bitar daya daga cikin littattafansa na Wilson. Williams, in ji shi, “yana tsaye shi kaɗai” wajen tabbatar da cewa wakoki na jarumtaka da wasan kwaikwayo, ba Vedas ba, su ne nassosi na gaske. [25] Ya ƙi yarda da kimanta Williams na aikin da ke cikin bugu na Rig Veda, kuma ya ce kwatanta ɗan ƙoƙarinsa da wanda aka yi a cikin Littafi Mai-Tsarki "kusan rashin girmamawa ne". [25] Ya ƙarasa da ƙoƙarin karyata da'awar cewa Boden ba zai so a tallafa wa nassosin Vedic ba. Ya lura cewa Bishop na Calcutta ( George Cotton ) ya rubuta cewa yana da "mafi girman mahimmanci" ga masu mishan suyi nazarin Sanskrit da nassosi "su sami damar saduwa da Pundits a kan kansu", kuma ra'ayin bishop shine. cewa babu wani abu da zai iya zama mafi daraja a cikin wannan aikin fiye da bugu na Müller, da kuma fassarar Wilson, na Rig-Veda ." [26]

Bayan wannan wasiƙar, Williams ya koka kan yadda Müller ke gudanar da yaƙin neman zaɓe a jaridu da kuma ɓarna abin da Williams ke faɗa. [8] Müller ya roki farfesa uku da Provost na Kwalejin Sarauniya da su yi la'akari da sahihancin wasiƙar nasa, kuma sun yarda da hakan. [27] A ra'ayin Beckerlegge, duk wadannan martani da martani da suka yi sun nuna "musayen da ke kara zafafa" tsakanin mutanen biyu da magoya bayansu. [8] Ya zama “kamar masu fada a ji su ne masu son zama ‘yan majalisa”, a cewar wani masani na zamani. [4] Terence Thomas, wani malami dan Birtaniya a cikin nazarin addini, ya rubuta "cin mutunci game da dan kasar Max Müller da kuma kwarewar Monier Williams a matsayin dan Sanskrit da magoya bayansu ke yi da shi." [28] Misali, daya daga cikin malaman Boden a Oxford, Robinson Ellis, ya ce Williams bai iya tabbatar da cewa zai iya karanta rubutun Sanskrit ba. Lokacin da aka kalubalanci shi, daga baya ya gyara wannan zuwa da'awar cewa Williams zai iya karanta rubutu ne kawai lokacin da zai iya kwatanta shi da wani, yana mai bayyana hakan a matsayin "ma'aikata na injiniya wanda ake biya a ɗakunan karatu na jama'a a Paris da Berlin a kan rabin rabin. shekara guda." [29]

Kowannensu yana da kwamitin mataimaka; Williams yana da biyu, ɗaya a London, ɗayan a Oxford. [30] Ya kashe sama da £1,000 a yakin neman zabensa – kamar yadda aka biya Farfesa Boden a cikin shekara guda. [4] A watan Yuni 1860, Müller ya koka a cikin wata wasiƙa zuwa ga mahaifiyarsa game da rubuta wa kowane ɗayan "4,000". masu zabe, sun warwatse ko’ina a Ingila”, ya ce a wasu lokuta ya kan yi fatan bai yi tunanin tsayawa takara ba, ya kara da cewa “idan ban ci nasara ba, zan yi giciye sosai! . [31]

Magoya baya da jaridu

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Letter from Wilson to Williams, 21 April 1860
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A cewar Beckerlegge, akwai ra'ayi da da yawa daga cikin masu ruwa da tsaki a gwagwarmayar da aka gwabza tsakanin Williams da Müller, wanda ya dogara da sakamakon fiye da aikin mutum daya kawai. - nasara ko gazawar mishan a Indiya, "har ma da kwanciyar hankali na mulkin Birtaniyya a wannan yanki" (bisa la'akari da abubuwan da suka faru a Indiya a cikin 'yan shekarun baya) na iya dogara da iyawar Farfesa Boden. Nasarar zata dogara ne akan iyawar kowane bangare na shawo kan mambobin Convocation wadanda ba mazauna garin ba su koma Oxford don kada kuri'unsu. [3] Kowane ɗan takara yana da magoya bayansa: Müller ya sami goyon bayan ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙasashen duniya, yayin da Williams ya sami damar yin kira ga malaman jami'o'in Oxford da waɗanda suka yi aiki a Indiya a matsayin masu gudanarwa ko mishan. [3] Dukkan 'yan takarar biyu sun yi ikirarin goyon bayan Wilson - "kamar dai tsarin maye gurbin manzanni ya shiga cikin nadin," in ji Chaudhuri. Jaridar Times ta ruwaito a ranar 23 ga Mayu cewa abokan Williams sun sanya nauyi mai yawa akan wasiƙar sirri zuwa gare shi daga Wilson, "yana nuna Mista Williams a matsayin magajinsa mai yiwuwa." [32] A sakamakon haka, Wilson ya bayyana cewa "watanni biyu kafin mutuwarsa" cewa "Mista Max Müller shine masanin Sanskrit na farko a Turai". Tushen wannan bayanin shine WSW Vaux, na Gidan Tarihi na Biritaniya, wanda ya bayyana tattaunawarsa da Wilson a cikin wata wasika zuwa ga Müller a watan Mayu 1860. Da yake mayar da martani ga kalaman Vaux cewa shi da wasu suna son magajin Wilson ya zama "mafi kyawun mutum da za mu iya samu", Vaux ya ambato Wilson yana cewa "Za ku yi daidai idan zaɓinku ya hau kan Max Müller." [33]

Jaridar Times ta buga jerin manyan magoya bayan kowane dan takara a ranar 27 ga Yuni 1860, tare da lura da cewa mutane da yawa ba sa bayyana goyon bayansu ga ko dai "tunda suna son ganin ko wani babban mutum ne ya sanar da kansa daga Indiya". Müller ya sami goyon bayan Francis Leighton, Henry Liddell da William Thomson (shugabannin kwalejojin All Souls, Christ Church, and Queen's ), Edward Pusey, William Jacobson da Henry Acland (Farfesa na Regius na Ibrananci, na Allahntaka, da kuma Magunguna ) da sauransu. Williams ya sami goyon bayan shugabannin Jami'o'i da kwalejojin Balliol ( Frederick Charles Plumptre da Robert Scott ), da abokan aiki daga kwalejoji goma daban-daban. [34]

 
Magoya bayan Müller sun hada da Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop na Oxford a 1860 sannan kuma Bishop na Winchester .

A ranar 5 ga Disamba 1860, kwanaki biyu kafin zaben, abokan Müller sun fitar da wani talla a cikin The Times don jera magoya bayansa, a matsayin martani ga irin wannan rikodin da aka yada a madadin Williams. A lokacin, jerin sunayen Müller sun haɗa da shugabannin kwalejoji 11 ko dakunan jami'a, 27 furofesoshi, fiye da 40 abokan koleji da malamai, da kuma yawancin membobin jami'ar da ba su da zama ciki har da Samuel Wilberforce ( Bishop na Oxford ) da Sir Charles Wood ( sakataren harkokin wajen Indiya). Jerin da aka buga a rana mai zuwa ya ƙara sunan Charles Longley, Archbishop na York, ga magoya bayan Müller. Gabaɗaya, masu goyon bayan jama'a ga kowane ɗan takara sun kasance kusan iri ɗaya ne a adadinsu, amma yayin da Müller ke samun goyon bayan "dukkan fitattun 'yan Gabashin Turai na zamanin", magoya bayan Williams "ba su bambanta ba", a cewar Chaudhuri. [5] [30] [36]

Jaridu da mujallu ne suka shiga muhawarar, wasu na cikin kakkausar murya. Ɗaya daga cikin wallafe-wallafen bishara, The Record, ya bambanta 'yan takara biyu: Rubutun Müller sun kasance "sannu ga duk masu sha'awar wallafe-wallafen, yayin da suka lalata amincewa da ra'ayinsa na addini"; An bayyana Williams a matsayin "mutum mai cikakken tsoron Allah, kuma mai yiwuwa, da yardar Allah a kan ayyukansa, don inganta babban abin da wanda ya kafa Farfesa ke da shi." [37] Wasu jaridun sun yi tsokaci kan kasashen ‘yan takarar; kamar yadda Beckerlegge ya ce, "Zaben shugaban Boden na kara daukar kamannin gwajin kishin kasa." [38] The Homeward Mail (wata jaridar London wacce ta mai da hankali kan labarai daga, da kuma alaƙa, Indiya) ta tambayi masu karatunta ko suna son "baƙo da baƙo" ya ci nasara, ko "ɗayan jikin ku". [37] Wani marubuci a jaridar The Morning Post ya ce ya kamata masu kada kuri'a su " ajiye manyan kyaututtukan jami'o'in Ingilishi ga daliban Ingilishi". [37] Jaridar Morning Herald ta ce "tambaya ce ta kasa da kasa", tun da hakan zai shafi ilimin ma'aikatan gwamnati da na mishan don haka "ci gaban addinin Kiristanci a Indiya da kuma kula da ikon Birtaniyya a wannan daular". [37] An yi tsammanin za a yi wa Biritaniya ba'a idan ta nada Bajamushe a matsayin babban malamin Sanskrit. [37]

Müller bai rasa goyon baya ba a cikin 'yan jaridu. Wani edita a cikin The Times a ranar 29 ga Oktoba 1860 ya kira shi "ba komai ko ƙasa da mafi kyawun masanin Sanscrit a duniya." Ya kwatanta halin da ake ciki da zaɓe na 1832, lokacin da kuma an yi zaɓi tsakanin mafi kyawun malami (Wilson) da ƙwararren malami "wanda aka yi amfani da shi don yin amfani da kyautar Kirista mafi kyau" ( William Hodge Mill ). [39] Williams, in ji shi, ya bayyana a matsayin "mutumin Jami'ar ..., mutumin ya isa ya cancanci wannan matsayi, kuma, fiye da duka, a matsayin mutumin da ke hannunsa, an rada masa, bukatun Kiristanci za su kasance lafiya." [39] Shawarwarinsa na kada ya koyar da tarihi, falsafa, tatsuniyoyi ko kwatankwacin ilimin falsafa "da alama ya tube batun sosai" kuma, yana tunanin, zai bar mukamin a matsayin "kujera mara kyau". [39] Ya bayyana cewa Müller "mafi kyawun amsoshi ga sharuddan kafuwar Kanar Boden." [39] Fannin karatunsa - mafi tsufa lokacin wallafe-wallafen Sanskrit - "dole ne ya zama mabuɗin dukan matsayi", yayin da Williams ya saba da rubuce-rubuce na baya, "marasa inganci, kuma marasa tsarki". [39] Editan ya ƙare da cewa Oxford "ba za ta zaɓi ɗan takarar da ba shi da ilimi; a duk abubuwan da suka faru, ba zai yarda da shi ba cewa wannan shine ainihin ƙa'idar zaɓen Kirista mai inganci." [39]

Pusey, babban malamin addinin Anglican da ke da alaƙa da ƙungiyar Oxford, ya rubuta wasiƙar tallafi ga Müller, wanda aka sake bugawa a cikin The Times . A ra'ayinsa, manufar Boden zai fi dacewa ta hanyar zabar Müller. Masu wa’azi a ƙasashen waje ba za su iya samun tuba ba ba tare da sanin cikakken bayani na addinin waɗanda suke mu’amala da su ba, ya rubuta, kuma littattafan Müller su ne “kyauta mafi girma da aka ba wa waɗanda har yanzu aka ba su” ga waɗanda suke irin wannan aikin. [40] Ya kara da cewa Oxford za ta samu ta hanyar zabe shi a matsayin da Müller zai iya kashe duk lokacinsa a kan aiki "mai matukar mahimmanci kuma mai dorewa ga juyin juya halin Indiya." Beckerlegge ya ga goyon bayan Pusey abin lura ne, tun da Pusey ba zai yarda da tsarin “faɗin” na Müller na musamman ga Kiristanci ba, don haka yana ba da hukunci a kan ƙwarewar ilimi na ɗan takarar da ya fi dacewa don ciyar da aikin mishan gaba a Indiya. [18] Wani marubuci da ba a bayyana sunansa ba da ya rubuta wa manema labarai don nuna goyon bayansa ga Müller, jim kaɗan kafin zaɓen, ya bayyana haka: “Dole ne halayen mutum ya tashi sosai, kuma ra’ayinsa na tauhidi ba zai iya ba amma kaɗan ne kawai don jin daɗi a kowane hannu, lokacin da ya yi. ya haɗu a matsayin magoya bayansa marasa jinkiri Dr. Pusey da Dr. Macbride" [41] - Magana ga John Macbride, wanda aka bayyana a cikin ƙamus na Oxford na Biography na Ƙasa a matsayin "mai zurfin addini na 'tsohuwar' makarantar bishara". Duk da haka, Dowling ya kwatanta Müller a matsayin "wanda bai dace da dabarar gardamar tauhidi ba, inuwa mai kyau da haɗin kai na addinin Victorian" – raunin da aka yi masa. [42]

Zabe

gyara sashe
The Times, 8 December 1860
In a Convocation held in the Sheldonian Theatre at 2 o'clock an election was held of a Boden Sanskrit Professor, to replace the late Mr H. H. Wilson. There were two candidates, Mr. Monier Williams, M.A., of University College, late Professor of Sanskrit at Haileybury, and Mr. Max Müller, M.A., of Christ Church and All Souls' Colleges, Taylorian Professor of Modern European Languages in the University of Oxford. Mr Williams took the lead from the first, and, as hour after hour went by, continually increased his majority. The poll was closed at about half-past 7, and the Senior Proctor declared Mr. Williams duly elected to the office. We understand that the numbers at the close were:Samfuri:IndentFor Mr. Williams 833Samfuri:IndentFor Professor Müller 610Samfuri:IndentMajority 223.[43]

An gudanar da zaben a ranar 7 ga Disamba 1860 a gidan wasan kwaikwayo na Sheldonian . An shimfida jiragen kasa na musamman guda uku a tsakanin Didcot da Oxford a yammacin wannan rana don saduwa da fasinjoji da ke tafiya daga yammacin Ingila, kuma an ba da ƙarin jirgin ƙasa guda ɗaya tsakanin Oxford da London ta hanyar Didcot da yamma. Wani jirgin kasa mai zuwa London daga arewacin Ingila ya kuma kira a Bletchley don ba da damar haɗi zuwa Oxford don fasinjoji daga wurare kamar Liverpool, Manchester da Birkenhead. Limaman bishara sun fito da karfi don kada kuri’a. [29] Sama da sa'o'i biyar da rabi na zabe, 833 Membobin Ikilisiya sun bayyana Williams, 610 ga Müller.

Masana tarihi sun ci gaba da ra'ayoyi daban-daban kan dalilin da ya sa, duk da cewa Müller galibi ana daukarsa a matsayin babban malami, amma ya sha kashi a hannun Williams. [44] Beckerlegge ya ba da shawarar abubuwa da yawa masu yiwuwa: ba kamar Williams ba, Müller an san shi a matsayin marubuci kuma mai fassara maimakon malamin Sanskrit, ba shi da alaƙa da Kamfanin Gabashin Indiya ko Hukumar Kula da Jama'a ta Indiya wanda zai iya kira ga magoya bayansa, kuma yana da. ba a yi karatu a Oxford ba. [45] A cikin mutuwarsa na Müller, Arthur Macdonell (Farfesa Boden 1899-1926) ya ce zaben "ya zo ne don juya ra'ayoyin siyasa da addini na 'yan takara maimakon a kan cancantar su a matsayin malaman Sanskrit", ya kara da cewa "jam'iyyar ta yi nasara kuma ta yi nasara. adadi mai yawa ne suka fito domin kada kuri'a." [46] Hakazalika, Dowling ya rubuta cewa "a cikin ƙananan yankuna a wajen Oxford ... hujjar cewa Müller ba Ingilishi ba ne ya fada da karfi a kansa "tun da "hujjar ta kasance (kuma ana nufin ta zama, ba shakka) ba za a iya amsawa ba." [42] Ta kara da cewa Tories sun yi adawa da shi saboda ra'ayinsa na siyasa mai sassaucin ra'ayi, ƙungiyoyin gargajiya a Oxford sun ƙi sake fasalin "Jamus", da "limaman cocin Anglican. ... an gano kafirci yana boye a cikin al'ummarsa" [42] Masanin tarihin Amurka Marjorie Wheeler-Barclay ya yi la'akari da cewa ba za a iya wargaza dalilai uku na mutanen da suka kada kuri'ar adawa da Müller ba. [47] Wadanda suka goyi bayan aikin mishan na Indiya, Dowling ya rubuta, sun gan shi a matsayin mabuɗin ci gaba da mulkin Biritaniya, kuma babu buƙatar ɗaukar zarafi ta hanyar zabar Müller, wanda ke da "suna ga ra'ayoyin addini marasa kyau", tun da Williams masani ne " na bambamcin da aka san shi da ra'ayin mazan jiya da takawa." [48]

Müller ya danganta shan kayen da ya samu a asalin Jamusanci da kuma zargin da yake yi na cewa addinin Kiristanci bai isa ya bi ka’ida ba, abubuwan da aka yi amfani da su wajen yin tasiri musamman masu kada kuri’a wadanda ba ‘yan jami’ar ba ne. [45] Ya yi hasarar, in ji ya rubuta, saboda "ƙarya mai ƙayatarwa da dabarun yaƙin zaɓe." [42] Williams ya rubuta a cikin tarihin tarihin rayuwarsa da ba a buga ba cewa ya kasance "al'amura sun fi so" kuma ba kamar Müller ba, an dauke shi a matsayin mai ra'ayin siyasa da addini. [45]

Abubuwan da suka biyo baya

gyara sashe
The last days have been full of disturbance. You will have seen by the papers that I did not get the Sanskrit Professorship. The opposite party made it a political and religious question, and nothing could be done against them. All the best people voted for me, the Professors almost unanimously, but the vulgus profanum made the majority. I was sorry, for I would gladly have devoted all my time to Sanskrit, and the income was higher; but we shall manage.[49]

Williams ya yi aiki a matsayin farfesa na Boden har zuwa mutuwarsa a 1899, ko da yake ya yi ritaya daga koyarwa (yayin da yake rike da lakabi) a 1887 saboda lafiyarsa. Ya dauki taken lacca na farko "Nazarin Sanskrit dangane da Ayyukan Mishan", daidai da ra'ayinsa game da rawar kujera. Thomas ya lura cewa kamar yadda Kamfanin Gabashin Indiya ya canza zuwa yin amfani da Ingilishi maimakon Sanskrit ko Farisa don aikinsa, "tushen halitta na ɗalibai ya riga ya bushe ba da daɗewa ba bayan da aka kaddamar da Kujerar Boden [a 1832]". [50] Williams ya taimaka wajen kafa Cibiyar Indiya a Oxford, inda ya gabatar da ra'ayin a 1875 da kuma taimakawa wajen tara kudade don aikin a ziyarar da ya kai Indiya, kuma ya jawo hankalin jami'a don ƙara karatun digiri a cikin karatun gabas. Littattafansa sun haɗa da fassarar wasan kwaikwayo da ayyukan nahawu. Ya sami matsayin jarumi a cikin 1886, kuma an nada shi Kwamandan Knight na Order of the Indian Empire a 1887, lokacin da ya canza sunansa ya zama Sir Monier Monier-Williams. [51]

Ana buƙatar Robinson Ellis ya halarci laccocin Williams duk da ƙarancin ra'ayinsa game da iyawar sabon farfesa. Williams ya ce "dukkan halin Ellis shine na mutumin da zai yi marhabin da girgizar ƙasa ko duk wani girgizar yanayi wanda zai buɗe masa hanyar nutsewa daga gani na". [29] Gaba daya Williams ya samu nasara akan mafi yawan wadanda suka yi adawa da zabensa, in ban da Müller. [29]

Ga Müller, rashin nasara a zaben wani muhimmin sauyi ne a rayuwarsa ta ilimi da tunani, a cewar Chaudhuri. [16] Yana nufin cewa Müller bai taɓa koyar da Sanskrit a Oxford ba, ko da yake ya kasance a can har mutuwarsa a 1900; kuma bai taba ziyartar Indiya ba. [10] Cikin takaicin rashin samun kujerar, Müller "yakan kaucewa ko kuma ya hana Monier Williams da danginsa a titunan Oxford", a cewar Williams. [52] An nada shi shugaban kwatancen ilimin kimiyya a cikin 1868, farfesa na farko na Oxford da jami'ar kanta ta kafa ba tare da kuɗi daga gudummawar sarauta ko na sirri ba. [44] Ya rubuta wasiƙar murabus a cikin 1875 lokacin da jami'a ta ba da shawarar ba da digiri na girmamawa ga Williams, yana ba da dalilinsa cewa yana son ƙarin lokaci yana nazarin Sanskrit. Abokai sun yi ƙoƙarin yin magana game da shi, sannan jami'a ta nada mataimakin farfesa don sauke aikinsa, girmamawa da ya yaba da shi sosai. [53]

Masanin tarihin Indiya Rajesh Kochhar, ya lura da goyon bayan Kamfanin Gabashin Indiya ga Müller, ya yi sharhi cewa "Malaman Oxford na iya samun nasu dalilai na tantance shi, amma Kamfanin da 'yan asalin kasar duka sun gan shi sosai." Duk da shan kayen da ya yi a zaben, ya sami babban suna a Oxford da kuma bayansa: "ya shagaltu da muhimmiyar rawa a rayuwar basirar al'umma", a cewar Beckerlegge, [54] kuma "duniya ta dauke shi a matsayin abin koyi na nasarar ilimi. (kamar yadda Dowling ya fada). [55] Dowling ya yi la'akari da cewa "[a] a cikin rayuwarsa, Müller an wulakanta shi a matsayin masanin kimiyyar harshe" kuma yana da "ƙananan mahimmanci" ga samfurin nazarin harshe na baya. [55] A ra'ayin Beckerlegge, ra'ayin Müller game da yanayin aikin mishan na Kirista ya nuna wahalhalu a wancan lokacin ga malaman addinin Kirista "suna yin aiki tuƙuru don haɓaka nazarin juriya da haɗe-haɗe na sauran al'adun addini". [56]

 
Kwalejin Balliol, wanda aka haɗa kujerar Boden tun bayan sake fasalin jami'a a 1882

Daga cikin sauran 'yan takarar, an zabi Cowell a matsayin farfesa na farko na Sanskrit a Jami'ar Cambridge a 1867, wanda Müller da sauransu suka goyi bayan. Griffith ya kasance shugaban kwalejin sa daga 1861 har zuwa 1878 (na nasara Ballantyne); ya ci gaba da aiki a Indiya bayan ya yi ritaya, kuma ya mutu a can. Ballantyne ya yi murabus a matsayin shugaban makarantar saboda matsalolin lafiya kuma ya koma Ingila, inda ya yi aiki a matsayin ma'aikacin ɗakin karatu a Ofishin Indiya (wani matsayi da Wilson ya rike ban da Farfesa) har zuwa mutuwarsa a 1864.

Masanin ilimin Jeremy Dibble (a cikin tarihin rayuwarsa na mawaki John Stainer, abokin Müller) ya rubuta cewa zaben "ya kwatanta yakin da ya biyo baya tsakanin masu tsarki da masu zaman kansu a jami'a, anachronism na tsarin Oxford na zaben ilimi da kuma bukatar gyara". Dokar Jami'o'in Oxford da Cambridge ta 1877 ta ci gaba da aiwatar da canjin canji da Majalisar ta kafa wanda aka fara a tsakiyar karni na 19, kuma ya ba wa rukunin kwamishinoni ikon tsara sabbin dokoki ga jami'ar da kwalejojinta. Ikon kwamishinonin sun haɗa da ikon sake rubuta amana da kwatancen da aka haɗa da kyaututtukan da suka kai shekaru 50 ko fiye. Kwamishinonin sun sake duba dokokin da ke kula da kujerar Boden a 1882; Ba a sake ambata ainihin dalilin tuba na Joseph Boden ba, haka ma Farfesan da Convocation zai zaɓa. [57] [59] Sabbin dokokin kwamishinonin na Kwalejin Balliol a 1881 sun haɗa da tanadin cewa wanda ke riƙe da Farfesa Boden za a naɗa shi ɗan'uwan kwalejin, wanda ya haifar da haɗin gwiwa tsakanin kujera da Balliol wanda har yanzu yana kan. wuri. [60] [61] Kamar sauran malaman jami’o’in, a yanzu Majalisar Jami’ar ta yi shiri na gudanar da taron kwamitin zabe, wanda Balliol ke da wakilai biyu, idan aka samu gurbi. As of 2017 , Farfesa Sanskrit shine Christopher Minkowski, wanda aka nada a 2005. Magabacinsa Richard Gombrich ya ce dole ne ya yi "yaki mai girma" a shekara ta 2004 don tabbatar da cewa an nada wani farfesa bayan ya yi ritaya, kuma ya danganta nasarar da ya samu ga jami'ar ta fahimci cewa ita ce kujera ta karshe a Sanskrit da ta bari a Birtaniya. .

Bayanan kula

gyara sashe
  1. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 178.
  2. ↑ At this time, "India" described the area covered by present-day India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh.[1]
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Beckerlegge, p. 193.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Evison, p. 2.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Chaudhuri, p. 221.
  6. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 186.
  7. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 187.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Beckerlegge, p. 201.
  9. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 202.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Beckerlegge, p. 188.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Dowling, p. 165.
  12. ↑ Van der Veer, p. 109.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named MullerODNB
  14. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 180.
  15. ↑ Van der Veer, p. 108.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Chaudhuri, p. 220.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Beckerlegge, pp. 334–335.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Beckerlegge, p. 203.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Beckerlegge, pp. 333–334.
  20. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 197.
  21. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 198.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Beckerlegge, p. 199.
  23. ↑ Chaudhuri, p. 223.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Williams2
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Muller2
  26. ↑ The letter from Cotton is reproduced in full in Müller, pp. 236–237.
  27. ↑ Chaudhuri, p. 227.
  28. ↑ Thomas, p. 85.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Evison, p. 3.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Chaudhuri, p. 222.
  31. ↑ Müller, p. 238.
  32. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named rivals
  33. ↑ Müller, p. 236.
  34. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named supports
  35. ↑ Müller, p. 242
  36. ↑ After the election, Müller's wife records that one voter said that if the ballots had been measured by weight, there would have been "no doubt" about the matter.[35]
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 Quoted in Beckerlegge, p. 196.
  38. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 196.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named editorial
  40. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Pusey
  41. ↑ Müller, pp. 241–242.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 Dowling, p. 164.
  43. ↑ "University Intelligence". The Times. 8 December 1860. p. 9. Archived from the original on 6 December 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2012.Samfuri:Subscription required
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Empty citation (help) Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Twaddle" defined multiple times with different content
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Beckerlegge, p. 195.
  46. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  47. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  48. ↑ Beckerlegge, pp. 202–203.
  49. ↑ Müller, p. 244.
  50. ↑ Thomas, p. 86.
  51. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named WilliamsODNB
  52. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 183.
  53. ↑ Chaudhuri, pp. 232–234.
  54. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 179.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Dowling, p. 160.
  56. ↑ Beckerlegge, p. 173.
  57. ↑ Statutes, pp. 90–91.
  58. ↑ "A history of Congregation and Convocation". Oxford University Archives. 2011. Archived from the original on 2004-12-22. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
  59. ↑ Further reforms during the 19th and 20th centuries gradually eroded the powers of Convocation; its only remaining roles are to elect the university's Chancellor and the Professor of Poetry.[58]
  60. ↑ Statutes, pp. 183, 194.
  61. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Balliol

Nassoshi

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Littafi Mai Tsarki

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